For history itself, staging means some kind of blasphemy. History is always flooding, 1 live forever. Of course, staging also provides specious reasons, which are also tenable in logic and fact. Firstly, it is manifested in methodology, and secondly, it is based on the consideration of educational theory. From a historical point of view, a generally recognized staging scheme has been formed. Mahism holds that human activities should pursue an effect of "maximizing benefits". As for historical facts, it is enough to write a general history, and other works should not repeat this historical fact. This is a kind of "waste of information" and "uneconomical thinking". So their ideal work is a few thin pieces of paper. I don't follow their practice here, because the appropriate facts still need to be confessed, even if there is "information duplication" objectively; This is also required by academic review. Namely: 800-500 BC, 500-336 BC, 336-365 BC, 438+0 BC. three

Each historical period has its own special tasks, and the nature of these tasks is summarized by later historians. In other words, people who live in the historical world may be in the unconscious of the group, but history has been formed. Not exactly. When rationalism prevailed, history had a "futurism" factor.

As many people have pointed out, Homer's era was the "Middle Ages" of ancient Greece. It is also a kind of "fracture" in a sense. The reflection of the Greeks began in ancient times, and the difference of reflection was first manifested in space. The Peloponnesian Peninsula in the southwest was the first to wake up, which carried forward the historical deposition of Mycenae, and its glory in system and other aspects amazed future generations (Spartans are the most typical). The Athenians in the northeast have also been very active, gradually affecting some central States. Democracy is developing.

The biggest event in this period was the Great Colonial Movement. The Greek world outlook and its turning point all took place in this movement, and the name "Great Greece" was thrown to later historians and cultural identities. The influence of the east on Greece that we have seen has really emerged. It was then that the ancestors of the Romans began to meet "people from the East". We can see such a historical track: iron spread from the east to Greece and then to Italy, thus supporting the most important material activities in ancient Greece and Rome, including artistic activities such as sculpture. The gradual formation of the monetary system once again touched Greece's commercial and trade spirituality, which was also the result of the "international division of labor" caused by the Great Colony. six

There is also an accompanying political event, which is the formation of the city-state. This is almost a great event since the birth of mankind, which is of profound historical significance. The city-state construction movement lasted for hundreds of years. Typical and unique slavery developed, and democratic politics flourished in many city-states. The Greek gods moved to the temple of the city-state, and spiritual activities such as philosophy and art made great strides, and legal activities were also colorful. Drama and poetry were active in the air of the city-state, and sports became a great event under the birth of conquest: the Greeks finally discovered "man". seven

History has quietly jumped into the line of sight of the "classical period", and many achievements of the city-state system mentioned above actually reached a climax after the Hebrew War. In a sense, it was the Greek-Persian War that finally ensured the historical prosperity and continuity of Greek culture (just as the Macedonian War later directly ensured the international spread and deposition of Greek culture). Firstly, it is manifested in the creation of the external environment of city-state life and the prosperity of city-state culture based on it; Secondly, the Persian war itself constitutes culture [such as the bronze statue Poseidon (or Zeus) cast to commemorate the victory of the battle, as well as a lot of tragedies and hymns].

As I said before, the prosperity of democracy first comes from the introspection of the Athenians, and the victory of Bo Shi War is the victory of the Athenians in a greater sense. In terms of geographical nature alone, the Athenians have been the biggest beneficiaries of this de facto war. So a series of events happened in Greek history: the Tyrol League in wartime paved the way for Athens to become the hegemon; The Peloponnesian War consumed social wealth and declared the end of democracy. Socrates was buried in the turmoil of democracy; The Macedonian army marched south. All this shows that the classical era has ended, and even if there is no causal relationship, it has opened the prelude to Hellenism.

Just as the Dorians destroyed the Mycenae civilization, the backward Macedonians (actually the Greeks) destroyed the democracy represented by Athens. However, Macedonians did not push history into the "dark period" like Dorians, but boldly accepted and carried forward the spirit of primitive civilization (of course, more is not reflected in the system). In fact, "Hellenization" means "Hellenization". The collision between the East and the West indicates the creation of another new world era, where "cosmopolitans" can find the expected historical materials. In fact, Hellenization is already creating another culture that is obviously different from Greek culture.

Second, religion in the city-state.

Was there any religion in ancient Greece? Or is the spiritual life of the ancient Greeks a mythical tradition or a religious tradition? In fact, it is ridiculous to ask such a question. The charm of ideological research (including myth, religion, philosophy, art, etc. ) lies in uncertainty. The answer cannot be unique. Asking a question is a question in itself. The key lies in standards and presuppositions. Interpretation is the most dynamic. I mainly discuss religion here. 10

When I say "religion in the city-state", I don't mean that the previous religion existed in the "rural suburbs". Greek religion first gained the meaning of existence in the city-state construction. The organization of society needs the support of a belief force, which can be ancestors, religion, reason or country. , and must be abstract and signed. This symbol has a lot of totem worship. 1 1 It is a sign, a coat of arms and a symbol of group identification. It is in this sense that the Greek gods can live safely on Mount Olympus.

The work of turning the god of nature into the god of society has been going on quietly. By the time Homer's epic and hesiod's Divine Spectrum appeared, this work had achieved initial results. 12 the transition from polytheism to monotheism is more subtle, and it has never appeared in an all-round way. This process truly interpreted the tragicomedy of a great colonial movement. Religion and polis spread everywhere with the great colonial movement, from which we can also get another meaning of "religion in polis" In fact, the idea that God and man are the same has long been rooted in the mind of every Greek citizen, and the group's unconsciousness breeds here.

As we all know, Greek religion is an absolute polytheism. But each city-state has its own patron saint, thus gaining the significance of monotheism. At this time, monotheism contains the factors of polytheism. The Greeks did not have Satan, and the sense of good and evil in people's hearts was pinned on the ability of the gods to be good and evil, thus achieving a moral and psychological balance. It is this special balance tension that gave birth to the Greek aesthetic consciousness of pursuing harmony. The maturity of rationalism is also related to this balance tension.

Another meaning of "from polytheism to monotheism" comes from the external challenge of the polis to religion, and the culprit is precisely the Great Colonial Movement (from which we can also see the paradox of faith). Orpheus in the north (Dionysian worship) went south and conquered the souls of many city-state citizens. In order to resist the unconscious resistance of orpheus, rational Greeks emphasized the worship of Apollo and advocated moderation. Thus, another magnificent balance tension was established, that is, the contract between Dionysus and Apollo, which Nietzsche highly praised. The balance tension of 13 also cultivates aesthetic consciousness and philosophical impulse.

However, the newly established balance tension was finally broken in the internal unity of opposites, and the gods witnessed the beginning and end of the Peloponnesian War on Mount Olympus. Many temples were destroyed. Although the inertia of balance still encourages people to live in harmony with the good and evil of God, the turbulent atmosphere still prevails. Socrates was martyred in this trend, and the reason was of course presented to God: introducing new gods and corrupting young people. The sensitivity and tenacity of art finally provide evidence in this regard; Tragedy seldom happens. Sculptures struggled in the program, and immortals became secular.

Third, turn to the philosophy of man and society.

Greece is the hometown of philosophy, and reason is called "ism" here, which bears fruit first. 14 It is difficult for us to distinguish the essential difference between primitive philosophy and religion, just as primitive religion and myth are inextricably linked. But it doesn't prevent me from making a proper exposition. As the commonness of philosophy and religion, one thing is certain, that is, understanding the world has gone through the process from nature to society. Relatively speaking, philosophy is more backward, as modern materialists say: sensibility always precedes rationality (maybe Plato doesn't think so). But this does not mean that religion is irrational, nor does it mean that philosophy should not be emotional. The relative advantage of religion in proposition is fundamentally reflected in the uncertainty of the questions raised. Although philosophy inherits this uncertainty, her reaction is often slow and she is endowed with thinking.

One way of thinking is generalization, which Thales did. When he attributed everything to water, he actually announced the birth of philosophy. We can assume that Thales was infected by the spirit of the times, and his ideas came from the mysterious enlightenment of the protector of the polis. But it is only a hypothesis that there are really too few historical materials. To be sure, Thales tried to find a kind of harmony from the moment reason was born, which is in line with religious facts.

Pythagoras contributed more because he left more historical materials, which also showed that he did more work. Firstly, it puts forward that "everything is based on numbers", which is a big step forward in ontology than Thales' "water". It was this "number" that inspired people at that time and later generations until Plato. Secondly, in order to affirm the harmony of numbers, we actually recognize the "feeling between heaven and man" and practice it in action. Thirdly, he linked "number" with God, verified the relationship between philosophy and religion with mysticism, and established his own religion-and it did not go against the will of the Olympians. "Proportion" is a very important proposition of Pythagoras school, which is actually about harmonious practice. The theory of harmonious purification based on proportion has inspired many artists and doers in later generations-"encouragement" may mean bondage.

Hera Crete's personality is a little different, and she is also sick. It is said that he is unpopular. But he was impressed by the greatness of nature in a larger field (which should have included society) and devoted his life to explaining his "logos"-a category called "unity of opposites and struggle" in modern philosophical language. Grasping the dialectics of nature not only achieved Heraclitus, but also defeated Heraclitus, the nihility based on skepticism caused by the "logos" of the universal order. The only thing that is not empty is the "logos" he firmly believes in; In fact, it has a harmonious nature. I found another contribution of Heraclitus from complicated artistic clues: spillover theory. Of course, contribution is not only for art, art is very sensitive to "aiming"-when providing the right environment. I will talk about it later.

The next philosopher is parmenides, whose historical mission seems to be specially set for Heraclitus. As a result, the Greek ideological space has fallen into the dilemma of "doing the opposite". Empedocles, who was keen on the struggle against injustice, came out and settled the ideological pattern of the times-that is, he did the simplest but most glorious job: overall consideration, doing nothing. Later, Anaxagoras, and then Democritus, finally completed the interpretation of nature. After Democritus, natural philosophy was in a low state for a long time, and the philosophy of "man" initiated by Socrates became the darling of the ideological circle. The main reason lies not in natural philosophy itself, but in ever-changing social themes. It should be said that the social theme of the whole archaic period attracted people's interest in natural philosophy (as did religion). Democritus's atomism is also a kind of harmony theory in aesthetics, but it is out of tune with the times (I refer to the utilitarian "times" here), because humanism, which has been dormant throughout the antique period, woke up and immediately emerged from the ground, shaking out a large number of "wise men" from the soil. 16

It should be said that Socrates is also a "wise man", but he does not claim to be such a philosopher. It is also in this sense that I said, "Socrates first created the philosophy of' man'". My prejudice may lie in ignoring protagoras's "Man is the measure of everything", but I have brought it up now.

Socrates attached importance to the purpose of existence, so that he could tolerate secular behavior that obviously violated the gods. Perhaps in fact, he has noticed the secularization of the gods. This is an unchangeable social fact. Socrates emphasized applicability, which he thought was proportion, harmony and purpose. This attitude eventually led to theological teleology. 17

It should be said that Socrates has not clearly felt the instability of the democratic system. He is still immersed in the prosperity formed since the Persian War, at least he believes in God. In a sense, it was the Persian War that gave birth to "the discovery of man" and declared "the destruction of man". Another significance of the Persian War is that it strengthened the belief of the gods and made them paranoid, but they began to preserve their evil hearts.

After Socrates was killed, Plato suddenly discovered the true meaning: the Greeks were destroying themselves, and the patron saint of the polis had lost his mind. Therefore, Plato is determined to recreate a "religious world"-an ideal country, and the supremacy of God is a very famous "idea". If Plato had used the word "supreme God" or "Zeus" instead of the word "idea", we would have every reason to believe that this was a change from polytheism to monotheism. The key point is that Plato didn't say so, which saved the dangerous situation that philosophy might go to theology. In any case, Plato's Republic is actually a living model of totalitarianism. 18 after several social experiments failed, he proposed a feasible model of "constitutional state" (but the ultimate goal is still an ideal country). What I want to say is that all Plato's works serve the ideal country (including the discussion on art). Of course, the interpretation and practice of his works by later generations may make Plato "burst into tears."

The footsteps of history have come before Aristotle, but Aristotle has no time to take care of it-his ideological burden is too heavy. The task of summarizing nature belongs to Aristotle. Some people say that Socrates' contribution cannot be overemphasized. In fact, three generations of grandparents and grandchildren deserve this honor. For the purpose of this paper, I want to point out the following achievements of Aristotle (because these achievements are so skilled, this does not prevent me from naming them without elaborating their meanings): harmony, order, proportion, stillness, overflow, matter, soul, motivation, purpose, and so on. 19

Fourth, sculpture.

Strictly speaking, "sculpture" and "plastic" are different, mainly in the technical level. But I didn't say there was no difference in aesthetic level. Different technologies will inevitably cause different materials to radiate, thus producing different aesthetic effects (whether creating aesthetics or appreciating aesthetics). Of course, "identity" also exists, and it absolutely conforms to the principle of relativity.

I am not sure that religion and philosophy must have something to do with sculpture (art), but I am sure that there is a relationship between them (of course, for creative psychology and aesthetic mentality). It can be confirmed that there is no synchronization agreement among the three, only synchronization; The three are unified in social reality, influencing each other and promoting the historical deposition of social reality. If we summarize the influence of religion and philosophy on sculpture, I hope to see consistent idealism in the turmoil of the program. What kind of idealism (the face of God, the order of the universe, and the appearance and concealment of human nature, etc. ) conform to moral facts and thus foster creativity? This is what the Greeks have been trying to do since the "dark ages"-maybe there is a clue from spontaneity to consciousness.

It should be said that the Dorian people went south, and Mycenae civilization disappeared instantly, except for some inevitable concepts-the earlier Minoan civilization may have variants in the East. At least in the sculpture art, the inheritance of Dorian people is almost gone, and it has really reached a "broken" state. (I can't say that there is no legacy, but I finally integrated into the stubborn and quaint Dorian program. ) With the deepening of the Great Colony, the Ionian Plan rose in the East. It bears the principle of regional antagonism and witnesses the whole process of Greek sculpture. 20

First of all, clumsy pottery and bronze figurines have opened the eyes of "clan commune scientists". It is said that there are also large wood carvings, but their physical characteristics are helpless in the pity of modern people. The statuette Hercules and Satiros, which is based on fairy tales, proves the geometric characteristics from the perspective of plastic arts and also shows the Greek program exploration. The joy of exploration has really opened the door to the history of Greek sculpture since ancient times, and the greatest contribution is the laying of human sculpture procedures. 2 1

During this period, a large number of popular "Kuros" (Greek name, meaning "young people") filled it. For orientals (mainly Egyptians), nude statues are tantamount to "selling dog meat by hanging sheep's head"; For your own soul, it means the courage to face the gods, and the very popular "similarity between man and god" is in this courage. Another reason for nudity may come from society: as we all know, the Greek concept of "sports" was born out of frequent wars, and its heroic feelings as a human being are still left behind. 23 idealism arises from this.

In ancient times, "Cora" (meaning "girl") did not hang her clothes over her shoulders, but was practiced in religious ceremonies as a holiday costume (sometimes as a lining in the square welcoming war/sports heroes). It should be noted that modern feminists can't get any benefits from it, including the failure of women in the Greek Olympic Games, which is not enough evidence in court. The solemnity and dignity of religion is enough to conquer any unruly soul. It is actually a display of people's mental outlook at that time.

Obviously, the integrity program and positive law copied from the East did not stop the inner agitation of Corros and Cora, and the pursuit of harmony was beyond words. As a "mechanical" breakthrough in Egypt, Smile actually declared that new religious concepts and philosophical knowledge were put into creative practice, and showed the free operation of time and space after the Greeks entered the cosmic order. 24

The evidence linking the past and the future comes from the gable sculpture of Abaya Temple on Aquinas Island. On the gables on the east and west sides, the soul uneasiness of human life brought about by social unrest is vividly verified: on the gables on the west side, the statues try to cling to the stylized "smile", but the fierce war atmosphere ties their ownership to the frightened horse mane, and the soul-stirring disharmony indicates a harmonious fate. The group carvings on the gable in the east, "antique smiles" almost disappeared, and realistic colors floated from the corner of their brow. It should be noted that realism has a long history. It penetrated into the sculptor's spirit in the trance when the program tried to start, creating another look, which was actually ferocious destruction.

Far from destroying the hostile plan of doria and Ionia, the Persian War strengthened it. Change has come quietly. From the external environment, the upsurge of heroism and patriotism not only gave people at that time, but also gave future generations a psychological cognition of "isomorphism and correspondence", which gave birth to "rigid style" program recognition, but did not feel the impact of shock wave in essence. For the internal system, the balance of tension always covers private games, and exciting moments meet in the interval of thirsty hearts. 26

What I want to talk about is the statue of Poseidon (also known as the statue of Zeus), a bronze statue representing the highest achievement in the period of "rigorous style". "Antique smile" has become an expressive action, and the body center has developed from the upright load-bearing of oriental programs to the separate load-bearing of legs; The human body structure is accurate, and the protruding muscles conform to the anatomical principle; Perfect modeling, vigorous movements, rich changes, interpretation of the overflow of harmony; Open your arms and throw the halberd in your right hand. I firmly believe that the objects hanging in the distance are all decorated by the revelation of gods and wise men: the kindness and abomination of Zeus, the serpent of Athena, the golden ratio of Pythagoras, and the overflow of Heraclitus' theory of relativity. The Greeks finally broke away from the eastern program and began a new era of indulging in classical programs.

I have to admit that as a program in the classical period, it has always contained elements of rebellion-humanism has never been unified, but only praised "man" as the most important creation in the universe, and the way is second. The sculptors of the Ionian school have the evil idea of "liberating women"; The creators of Dorian system are learning Heraclitus' "Relativity Spillover", and their understanding is obviously skewed-but for sculpture, this may be a great blessing; Socrates created an atmosphere of rationalism; All this, including the chimney of a slave family at the foot of the Acropolis, is subject to the concrete balance, harmony, order and the moderate order.

Next, I want to introduce three great people. In fact, it was the three of them who really supported the sculpture art in classical Greece.

Perikles's value may lie more in his work "The Law" than in equally influential works of art (such as The Lancer and The Red-haired Athlete). As the successor of the Pythagorean aesthetic spirit, Perikles realized the transition of proportion from god to man, and clearly established the concept system and operating system of "human body proportion". In fact, Perikles summarized the stylization process since the classical period and imposed this concept on later generations, and its traces were still visible until modernism prevailed in the 20th century. In addition, Perikles is worthy of the title of "mechanic". He liberated the statue's left foot and opened up a big battlefield for the expression of strength. At this point, he and phidias may have some mutual influence. 3 1

Phidias's reputation is definitely above that of Perikles, mainly because the design drawings of the new Acropolis in Athens came from his hands, and he actually participated in the actual activities of the Acropolis construction. It is in this sense that "phidias" has become synonymous with the whole ancient Greek art, because modern people know the integrity of Athens preservation. Phidias studied under Dorian tradition, but he did a lot of work to break through the procedure. Thus formed the lofty artistic style of Silence of the Gods (in winkelmann). Idealized features have dominated the whole Greek sculpture art since then. Phidias finally made a statement: be loyal to nature and purify it at the same time; Imitating nature also highlights idealized imagination.

The decrease of large decorative carvings is due to the consumption of wealth brought by the war to Greece. Since then, the construction of the temple has stagnated, and God and man have become more integrated. People's hearts can no longer be calm, and solemn and noble statues are gradually becoming less and less. The goddess of love and wine can be comforted by money, which provides Ionia with a territory to change her eyes and eyes. Secular and human feelings meet unexpectedly. Praxiteles scraped off the strong muscles of naked men before, which not only feminized men's figure, but also finally (and initially) tore off women's "holiday costumes" and opened a new era of naked Venus. The figure is not only very capable, slender, relaxed and soft, but also the S-shaped curve change fully shows the natural assembly line. Praxiteles loves the texture of marble, because what he wants is the subtle changes and wonderful meanings of human muscles. From his masterpiece cornelius Venus, I saw protagoras's "human scale", Heraclitus's "overflow", Ionian's persistent decoration scheme, Democritus's "soul atom" and naked women's "bold natural implication".

Allow me to say a few words about Miloon and Lisipas at the end of this section. In fact, discus throwing is an exposition of "rigorous style", and the ancient style program has long since disappeared. More importantly, it seems that phidias, Perikles and terrace, Praxy all got "mysterious enlightenment" from the discus throwers, and thus embarked on the road of mutual harmony and distinct differences. Lisipas was the last sculptor in the classical period. He broke through Perikles in proportion (sublating nature, of course), performed "deformation surgery" on phidias's idea in idealization, was good at mastering the ever-changing movement posture, and was more sensitive to Democritus's "soul atom" than Praxair. However, the value of Heaps is not great, because Macedonian troops have rushed to the south and east, Greek sculptures have flooded, and they have also experienced several surges of oriental agitation. Hellenization also means "Hellenization".

Enlightenment of verb (abbreviation of verb) to modern people

It can be said that since the Romans, sculpture art has never surpassed the achievements of Greek classical period, and human sculpture seems to have no way out. Various schools of modernism have done a lot of experiments, from the drilling of cubism to the collocation skeleton of constructivism, from the dismemberment of surrealism to the "turning waste into treasure" of collectivism. In addition to their modern significance, they have not even surpassed Michelangelo in the Renaissance and Rodin later. The key point is that the Greek sculptor discovered a theme of human history, that is, "man", and gave him a revelation from a god without mysticism. This is a very precious thing that has disappeared from generation to generation by later generations. 38

Religions in modern society are struggling for "modernity transformation", and some of them are doing better, such as Protestantism; There are also struggles, such as Islam. Looking back, it turned out that the Greeks had done it: not only did they eliminate people's doubts about existence, but they also endowed the void of existence with sacred significance. People get along well with God, because they are just one thing and two bodies, with different names and the same name. 39

Philosophy suffers more, because she follows the impulse of rationalism, so she lingers and vacillates in front of the temple of divinity. Battlefield is everywhere.