Thought formation period
This period is the pre-Qin period in the history of China. China has a long history of civilization. During the Western Zhou Dynasty, rich and inheritable ideological materials were accumulated in political thoughts. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the era of social unrest in which the heroes competed for hegemony was a historical opportunity for the full development of the political thought of governing the country. A hundred schools of thought contend, with Confucianism, Laozi and Zhuangzi as the main representatives, Taoism, Mozi as the main representative, and Legalists, Shang Yang and Han Fei as the main representatives.
At the same time, the representatives of these schools and their disciples also wrote and sorted out China cultural classics such as Shangshu, Zhou Li and Analects of Confucius, and put forward political and ideological viewpoints such as distinguishing between righteousness and benefit, people-oriented, rule of law, self-cultivation and governing the country.
Political Thought in Shang and Zhou Dynasties
First, the content of the thought of supremacy of kingship in Shang Dynasty
1, the concept of ancestor worship. During the formation of China's early state, the patriarchal family relations in the period of patriarchal family commune were completely preserved. Therefore, the concept of ancestor worship was further developed in Shang Dynasty, and a certain ceremony was formed. Mainly manifested in the worship of Shang ancestors.
2. The concept of kingship is developed from ancestor worship. In the early Shang Dynasty, just entering the tribal countries, the customs of the clan commune period had a great influence, and the old clan nobles still had great power.
Second, the political and ideological content of the Duke of Zhou, knowing morality and being cautious about punishment, respecting heaven and protecting the people:
1, do as you are told. In the early years of the Western Zhou Dynasty, people talked more about fate or destiny. In fact, the rulers of Shang Dynasty believed in Heaven Emperor, which was a manifestation of the cultural underdevelopment of Shang Dynasty. There is no substantial difference between what people in the early Zhou Dynasty said and what people in the late Shang Dynasty said. However, Zhou people's understanding of fate took a big step forward compared with the concept of Heaven Emperor in the late Shang Dynasty. This is mainly reflected in Zhou Gong's thought of "destiny is not always there".
2. Destiny and personnel are unified, and destiny is known from people's feelings. Duke Zhou emphasized the unity of destiny and personnel and advocated observing destiny from people's feelings. In fact, it is an empty fate, focusing on personnel.
3. Respect God and protect the people. We should bear in mind the historical lessons of the demise of the dynasty and not covet comfort and neglect political affairs; We should observe people's feelings and use punishment with caution.
Confucian political thought
First, the political thought of Confucius
The "benevolence" put forward by Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, has the nature of classical humanitarianism: advocating "rites" and maintaining the rites of the week are conservative parts of Confucius' political thought. Confucian culture later developed into the orthodox culture in ancient China. The main body of Confucius' political thought is the theory of benevolence and ceremony, which is the core category of Confucius' political thought.
1. Regarding the concepts of propriety and benevolence, what is benevolence? Confucius mentioned benevolence in 100 places in The Analects of Confucius, which has a wide meaning, but it has two basic meanings: one is love. His disciple Fan Chi asked Confucius what benevolence was, and Confucius replied, "Love". Benevolence is the relationship between people. We should be friendly and blind, help each other and care for each other.
2. The second courtesy is self-denial. The meaning of ceremony includes two aspects: first, it belongs to the provisions of the fundamental political system. Confucius said that etiquette is the "Great Classic of Kings" (Zuo Zhuan has been famous for fifteen years), the fundamental rule and the key to governing the country. "Regarding the relationship between propriety and benevolence, he thinks that benevolence is the inner spirit of propriety, and propriety is the manifestation of benevolence. Benevolence is the highest realm of ceremony, and ceremony is the way to realize benevolence. As far as the essence of benevolence and courtesy is concerned, benevolence, in the final analysis, embodies the benevolent relationship between people rooted in blood relationship; Rites mainly regulate the political order and system of society. Secondly, in Confucius' ideological system, the combination of benevolence and propriety was emphasized, and the combination of benevolence and politics was emphasized in essence, thus making a major revision of Zhou Li. Benevolence and propriety are not contradictory, because benevolence is content and propriety is form, and the combination of them is a kind of system perfection.
3. About the thought of ruling by virtue. It is related to Confucius' theory of benevolence, righteousness and propriety. In the general plan of governing the country, he advocates "governing the country by virtue", and governing the country by virtue is the noblest way to govern the country. This strategy of governing the country is also called "rule by virtue" or "rule by courtesy". In fact, this strategy broke the traditional creed that courtesy is no less than Shu Ren's, and broke the original important boundary between nobles and civilians. The content of the rule of virtue includes: ruling the country by courtesy and correcting the name, promoting talents, implementing egalitarian policies and implementing ignorant policies.
Confucius' theory of benevolence embodies the spirit of human nature, while Confucius' theory of propriety embodies the spirit of etiquette, that is, order and system in the modern sense. Humanism is the eternal theme of mankind, which is applicable to any society, any era and any government, and order and institutional society are the basic requirements for establishing a civilized human society. This humanitarianism and order spirit of Confucius is the essence of China's ancient social and political thought.
Second, Mencius' political thought
Mencius was the representative of Confucianism in the Warring States Period. He advocated benevolent governance and put forward the idea that "the people are more expensive than the monarch". Advocate "politics depends on the people" and oppose tyranny; It advocates giving farmers a certain amount of land, not infringing on farmers' working hours, and lenient punishment and thin taxes.
1, the theory of good nature. Mencius believes that good nature can be verified by universal psychological activities that everyone has. Since this psychological activity is universal, good nature is based on human nature, which Mencius called "conscience" and "goodness". "Mencius Gao Zi Shang": "Everyone has compassion; Everyone has a heart of shame and evil; Everyone has a respectful heart; Everyone has a right and wrong heart. Compassion, benevolence; Shame and nausea, righteousness also; Respect and courtesy; The heart of right and wrong is also wise. Benevolence, righteousness, propriety and wisdom are not foreign, but inherent to me.
2. benevolence. Mencius developed Confucius' "benevolence" into the theory of "benevolent government". He believes that to implement "benevolent government", it is necessary to "control the people's permanent production", "don't rob the farming season" and "save penalties and taxes" so that the people can have the lowest material living conditions; Mencius saw that the people were being exploited and oppressed by the feudal landlord class, and tried to take these measures to ease class contradictions and consolidate the rule of the landlord class, but it was still conducive to the development of production. In connection with the theory of "benevolent government", Mencius also put forward the view that "the people are more valuable than the monarch", saying: "the people are more valuable, the country is second, and the monarch is lighter" (Mencius). He believes that only with the support of the people can the monarch achieve and maintain his dominant position. Therefore, he advocated that the monarch should mainly implement "benevolent government" and "have fun with the people."
Third, Xunzi's political thought.
Xunzi was another representative of the Confucian school in the Warring States Period, and he was unique among the pre-Qin Confucianism. Politically, he advocates the rule of courtesy and thinks that human nature is evil.
1, the theory of evil nature. It is believed that there are four manifestations of human sexual desire: sensory desire; Li Hao; Xenophobia and jealousy; Honor and disgrace. These natures contain evil genes, and when these instincts expand outward, they go to evil. Xunzi affirmed people's sociality, taking sociality as the standard, and thought that people's naturalness was evil and should be reformed. The most fundamental way to reform is to "reform and falsify". What is natural in nature is human nature, and what is artificial the day after tomorrow is false.
2. "Owners are equal in rank, old and young are orderly, and poor and expensive are all called". Why is society chaotic? The essential reason is people's greed and the disputes arising from it. It is natural to be polite to solve such disputes. Etiquette is a tool to correct human nature, which is made by saints. The ceremony of saints is based on social contradictions, which are based on one's lust, the conflict between nature and society. Xunzi believes that the key to rule by courtesy lies in people. Xunzi advocated the rule of courtesy, the main purpose of which was to maintain the feudal hierarchical order. The specific contents included: After the law, it was king, making Shang Xian rich and rich.
Fourth, the characteristics of Confucianism.
1, attach importance to tradition and inheritance.
2. The combination of politics and ethics.
3. In the general plan of governing the country, it advocates the rule of virtue, giving priority to morality, complementing morality and punishment, and emphasizing the rule of virtue.
4. Pay attention to the rule of man and the golden mean.
5. The relationship between heaven and man is more important than personnel and less important than destiny.
Taoist political thought
Taoism is a school of thought in the pre-Qin period, mainly represented by Laozi and Zhuangzi. Taoism advocates nature, dialectics, atheism, inaction and opposition to struggle.
I. Laozi's Political Thought
1, Lao Tzu's Tao is the origin and universal law of the universe; Value judgment of human society
Standard. Man's law is based on the earth, the earth is based on the sky, the sky is based on the Tao, and the Tao is natural.
2. Inaction politics. Main contents: Without Shang Xian, the people will not dispute; Expensive and rare goods, so that people do not steal; Let people have strange things without using them; Abandon wisdom and righteousness; Be careful when conquering. The central idea is to streamline political affairs. A small country with few people and an ideal society with free political life; Self-sufficiency in economic life; Cultural ignorance; Morally simple and natural.
Second, Zhuangzi's political thought
Zhuangzi inherited Laozi's thought, further elaborated the thought of governing by doing nothing, and concretized inaction into three levels: no self, no work and no name. Zhuangzi said that saints should be selfless, reactive and nameless.
"No self" has two meanings, one is spiritual freedom, and the other is to eliminate personal prejudice. Everything conforms to nature and belongs to the category of inaction. Nothing can be understood as inaction, that is, obeying nature. Unknown saints also talk about inaction. Compared with reality, names belong to natural things, and man-made things belong to real things, so names are things. A saint should have facts, put aside his name and abandon others. Do not pay attention to fame and fortune, pay attention to actual effect. If you are famous, your name is only an accessory brought by reality. In addition, Zhuangzi also believes that, as one of all things, human existence and behavior should also be inaction, and it should "destroy the sky without anyone" and "be quiet and lonely, and heaven and earth are the foundation of virtue".
Third, the political and ideological characteristics of Taoism
1, Taoism unifies everything and respects the rational spirit of Taoism.
2. Go ahead at will and explore the life purport of Xuan Suoyin.
3, eclectic, impartial tendency.
4. The values of seeking truth and being pragmatic and abandoning falsehood and deception.
Mohist political thought
Mozi, as the founder of Mohism in the pre-Qin period, had a great influence in the history of China philosophy. Mozi has a lot of words and deeds in his lectures, and put forward ideological and political views such as universal love, Shang Xian, Shang Tong and non-aggression. This is an important basis for studying Mozi's thought.
1. Universal love is universal and undifferentiated mutual love between people. It is "a country that depends on people, if it is a country; Take one's home as one's own; Depending on the human body, if it is the body. " Let each other's interests merge into one. This is the core of Mohist thought!
2. Shang Xian is a respect and reuse for the sages. The so-called "officials are impermanent and expensive, and the people are endless; If you can, you can raise it. If you can't, you can go down. " Regardless of rank, merit is the best move.
3, Shang Tong, that is, "choose the sages of the world and be the son of heaven", and the son of heaven is the Shang Tong in the sky, so that the whole society will be unified.
4. Not attacking means opposing wars of aggression and plunder. Mozi believes that war is a "great disaster in the world", and only by stopping mutual conquest can society be peaceful.
Political thoughts of legalists
China was an important school with the rule of law as its core during the Warring States Period. Its ideological pioneers can be traced back to the Spring and Autumn Period, and the actual founders are Shang Yang and Shen Dao in the early Warring States Period. Han Feizi at the end of the Warring States Period was a master of legalism, and he established a complete theory of rule of law and a philosophical system of simple materialism.
First, Shang Yang's political thought
Shang Yang advocated the rule of law. He believes that law is the foundation of governing the country. Only by implementing the rule of law can the country be stable. "The decree, the life of the people, the foundation of governance, is also prepared for the people." Shang Yang put forward some principles of the rule of law: there is no hierarchy of punishment, knowing the law and benefiting the people, and severe punishment for minor crimes. Shang Yang also believes that the law has the function of calming things down, winning people's hearts and ensuring the policy of enriching the people.
Second, Han Fei's political thoughts
Han Fei founded the theory of absolute monarchy with both gods and demons, and established a complete theoretical system of legalists. Han Fei advocates absolute monarchy, and the monarch is supreme. Regarding the law, he believes that "the law is solid, the law is not expensive, and it is forbidden." Regarding art, he believes that, first, you have nothing to see. Second, I didn't see anything for nothing. Third, choose truth by name and experiment with ministers. Regarding the situation, first, it is necessary to prohibit governors from forming private parties. Second, strictly control the political and economic strength of etiquette. Third, I can never specialize in military power and human rights.
Third, the characteristics of legalist political thought.
1, advocate the policy of enriching Qiang Bing.
2. Advocate extreme monarchy and attach importance to the role of law.
Period of ideological development
The period of ideological development is the Qin and Han Dynasties in China's history, and the Qin and Han Dynasties are the period when China's absolute monarchy was further established. In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the feudal system in China was further developed and consolidated, and the history of political thought in China was further developed. Confucianism and Taoism have been well developed.
Political thoughts of famous emperors in Qin, Han, Sui and Tang Dynasties
First, Qin Shihuang's political thought
1, Zunjun, Qin Shihuang inherited the tradition of Legalism in political guiding ideology, and was a believer and practitioner of Legalism's proposition of "ruling the country according to law". He strengthened the authority and autocratic rule of the monarch.
2. The idea of centralization. Qin Shihuang listened to Lisi's point of view and formulated the central official system and the political system of local group counties.
3. The rule of law thought of severe punishment holds that the heavier the oppression on the people, the better. This kind of political violence and political thought is the extreme development of Legalists' theory of severe punishment, which embodies the essence of autocratic imperial power in Qin Dynasty.
4. The cultural autocratic thought of "teaching by law" and "taking officials as teachers" issued a "book burning order", which also requires people to take officials as teachers: "To learn the law and take officials as teachers", so as to truly realize the "integration" of ideology and culture.
Second, the political thought of Emperor Wu of Han Dynasty
1, seeking change, he opposed the rut, repeatedly proposed to "change" and demanded to proceed from actual politics.
2. As the foundation of politics, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty has a strong sense of mission and knows that "the heavy responsibility lies on the shoulders and the responsibility is great". He abandoned the contention of a hundred schools of thought and respected Confucianism alone, put an end to the chaotic ideological trend in the field of social ideology, and strengthened ideological autocracy and personal autocracy.
3. The combination of morality and punishment and benevolence.
Emperor Taizong and Zhenguan Ruling Group
Third, the political thought of Emperor Taizong.
The reign of Emperor Taizong and Li Shimin was the heyday of political civilization, economic prosperity and cultural development in the Tang Dynasty. First, take Tang as a mirror and be prepared for danger in times of peace. And put forward the people-oriented theory that the monarch depends on the country and the country depends on the people; Establish a monarch for the people, the people hold the monarch, the people elect the monarch, and the people belong to the monarch; The policy of attaching importance to the people includes the monarch's inaction, obeying the will of the people, endless people's strength, taking agriculture as the foundation and adjusting the relationship between the government and the people. Secondly, put forward the theory of the unity of monarch and minister: the theory that monarch can't rule alone; Harmony between monarch and minister; Teachers and friends; The theory that monarch and minister are in danger; Monarchs, ministers and assistants. Third, the strategy of governing the country is to seek advice from good teachers and friends; Attach importance to agriculture; Frivolous and thin; Maoji; Emphasize the rule of law.
Political Thought of Taoism in Han and Tang Dynasties
First, the political thought of Huang Lao in the early Han Dynasty
China's philosophical schools and political thoughts in the Warring States Period. Respect the legendary Huangdi and Laozi as founders. The technique of Huang Lao began in the Warring States and flourished in the Western Han Dynasty. It introduced legalism, reformed Laozi's Taoist thought, adopted the views of Yin and Yang, Confucianism and Mohism, and formed its own opinion, which is Huang Lao's thought. The characteristic of Huang Lao's thought is "governing by doing nothing". His thoughts are: frivolous and generous, sharing interest with the people, being quiet and not disturbing the people, governing by doing nothing, teaching separately, being modest and diligent.
Second, Bao Jingyan's political thought
He was a thinker, Taoist figure and monarchist in Jin Dynasty. He criticized the monarch and the concept of hierarchy, mainly thinking that the monarch was extravagant and extremely oppressed the people. And deny the equality view of "respecting order" and the ideal politics without gentlemen.
Third, Ge Hong's political thought.
Ge Hong's political thought covers Confucianism and Taoism, and his basic political proposition is to have a monarch. He has a very strong idea of respecting the monarch and advocates the exclusive right of the monarch. Great changes have taken place in his thoughts since his birth, from advocating Confucianism in the early days to the integration of Confucianism and Taoism. It is put forward that "Tao is the foundation of Confucianism." Confucianism, the end of Taoism. "
Political Thought of Confucianism in Han and Tang Dynasties
First, Jia Yi's political thought
Jia Yi advocates the combination of Confucianism and law, with Confucianism as the main idea. On the one hand, it advocates the traditional Confucian strategy of governing the country by virtue and benevolence, and advocates people-oriented; Implement a benevolent policy of benefiting the people and enriching the people; Reduce the punishment, the government does not disturb the people; Zhang Siwei (propriety, righteousness, honesty and shame). On the other hand, Jia Yi advocated both etiquette and law, and strengthened centralization. He thought that the quietism of the Huang family could not adapt to the "current situation", so he clearly proposed to advocate propriety and righteousness, establish a legal system, consolidate centralization, and strengthen monarchical power on the basis of propriety and righteousness.
Second, Dong Zhongshu's political thought
Dong Zhongshu's political thought is the product of Confucianism and the confluence of Confucianism and law, forming a systematic political theory of heaven and man. Dong Zhongshu's theory of "harmony between man and nature" marks the completion of the transformation of Confucianism in the pre-Qin period to mysticism. Maintaining the supremacy of monarchy is one of Dong Zhongshu's basic political propositions. At the same time, he systematically expounded the theory of scourge, tried to standardize the policy principles of feudal rulers with the way of yin and yang, and advocated paying equal attention to morality and punishment, focusing on "ruling by virtue" Dong Zhongshu called the political principle he advocated "Tao" and thought that Tao was an eternal law that would never be easy. On the premise of adhering to Tao, he advocated that rulers should make appropriate local adjustments according to the actual situation of political operation, which is the thought of economy, power and culture.
Third, Wang Fu's political thought.
Wang Fu's Confucian political thought embodies the characteristics of giving priority to Confucianism and combining Confucianism with law. He not only inherited the Confucian people-oriented thought and moral thought, but also emphasized the importance of punishment. At the same time, he believes that morality alone is not enough, and the "chaotic country" must be governed by the rule of law. Legal punishment is an important pillar and indispensable for maintaining the feudal monarchy. The core of Wang Fu's thought of ruling by law is to closely combine law, art and power, restrict and supplement each other. It further deepened the political concept of the rulers that morality and law should be combined and Confucianism and law should complement each other.
Fourthly, Wang Tong's political thought.
Wang Tong's political thought Zhong Shuo advocates the unity of the three religions, taking Confucianism as the main body and absorbing the elements of Buddhism and Taoism. On the rule of king, impromptu king, courtesy and pleasure; The strategy of governing the country based on quietism is lenient probation and light tax. Wang Tong took Wang Mingdao as his own responsibility, criticized Confucian classics in Han Dynasty, devoted himself to the revival of Confucianism, and put forward some valuable ideas.
Verb (abbreviation of verb) Han Yu's political thought
Taoism, which rejects Buddhism and trees Confucianism, says that Buddhism is a barbarian law and is harmful to feudal countries. Buddhism is no good, and the emperor also believes that Buddhism corrupts the social atmosphere. He has a set of absolutism theory of respecting the monarch and restraining the people. Han Yu pointed out that an important difference between the Confucian way and the way to release the old is that the Confucian way is not only at the level of moral consciousness, but also an internal realm, and it is embodied in concrete actions. The so-called benevolence, righteousness and action, and the unity of heart and action are all of the Tao. Explaining the old is not helpful to the country, while Confucianism is the highest principle of the integration of morality and politics.
Sixth, Liu Zongyuan's political views.
His dominant thought is Confucianism. Like traditional Confucianism, he attaches great importance to the function of "ceremony" and advocates that "Confucianism establishes benevolence and righteousness with ceremony, and rudeness is evil." At the same time, he is also eclectic in his thoughts of law, Taoism and Buddhism. For example, in the concept of etiquette and punishment, he absorbed the legalist theory of rule of law and thought that etiquette and punishment were consistent in principle, but each had its own role. In addition, he also put forward the theory of "serving officials for the people", emphasizing that officials should be public servants of the people, and his duty is to give practical benefits to the people. At the same time, it also criticized the traditional ethical preaching and abolished the "six inversions" to criticize the shortcomings of the Tang Dynasty: bribing the people and collecting taxes; Corrupt officials disturb the people; The autocratic power of eunuchs was corrupted.
Seven, the political and ideological characteristics of Confucianism in Han and Tang Dynasties
1. Legalization of the concept of monarch and minister-from relative to absolute.
2. Legalization of Confucian basic moral principles and norms-the emergence of "three cardinal guides".
3. Legalization of the guiding ideology of the legal system-giving priority to morality, supplemented by punishment.
Ideological perfection period
This period is basically the Song and Ming Dynasties in the history of China. It is also a relatively perfect period of monarchy, and the development of China's traditional political thought is in a relatively perfect period, which is suitable for the social characteristics of this period. The history of political thought of Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties, mainly represented by Zhu, Wang Yangming, appeared. At the same time, the utilitarianism political thought in Song Dynasty, represented by Wang Anshi and Chen Liang, also appeared. This thought puts forward a series of utilitarian ideas of governing the country in view of the accumulated social disadvantages. This is an important symbol of the perfection of China's traditional thought.
Utilitarianism in Song Dynasty
First, Li Gou's political thought
The basic feature of Li Gou's political thought is that he pays attention to utility and has a political tendency to reform the current situation. This thought is based on his view of heaven and his thought of change. He believes that the concept of heaven is changing, and the monarch must follow the example of heaven when dealing with political affairs. Therefore, politically, he emphasized that "the skill of preserving disadvantages is nothing more than change and supports the policies at that time." In his political thoughts, he put forward the people-oriented thought of living and working in peace and contentment based on Zhi-guo Qian Thought, and the utilitarian thought of unifying land by land improvement measures.
Second, Wang Anshi's political thought
Wang Anshi takes paying attention to utility and carrying out political reform as the main content of his political thought, and takes the theory of five elements as the core. He believes that form is the foundation of human nature. "Walker, the foundation of life. At the same time, there is also a political proposition of "changing the ancestral law". The reform mainly includes rich countries and Qiang Bing. Rich countries have promulgated the Young Crop Law, the Farmland Water Conservancy Law and the Market Liberalization Law, while Qiang Bing has promulgated the Garbo Law and the General's Art of War. He put forward the thought of "restraining the strong, delaying the poor and helping the weak" and the financial management thought of "urgent agriculture" and "good rights and good laws" He believes that financial management must be urgent, and financial management must be guaranteed by good laws.
Third, Chen Liang's political thought
Chen Liang was a thinker representing the interests of patriotic small and medium-sized landlords and businessmen at that time, advocating utilitarianism and opposing empty talk about life justice. The core of Chen Liang's political thought is utilitarian thought, which is the theoretical basis of his political thought. He put forward many views. First, the life theory of "people have the same desire" holds that people's material desire is human nature. In this nature of justice, there is an objective criterion that is independent of human material, and this criterion is called destiny. The second is the people-oriented thought of "being honest with people and measuring people's lives". Third, pay attention to the utilitarian thinking of doing things.
Fourthly, Ye Shi's political thought.
Ye Shi was a famous politician and thinker in Song Dynasty, and his thoughts represented the progressive tendency at that time. Ye Shi's utilitarian thought is based on his philosophical thought, that is, the Taoist view of nature between things and me. He said: "Where things are, the Tao is there. There is no end to things and no end to Tao. Those who don't know can't understand things, and those who don't know things can't reach the Tao. " He put forward: first, the people-oriented thought of forgiving the people and knowing the government, advocating relieving the people's suffering, advocating forgiving the people's government and reducing the tax burden as much as possible. The second is the utilitarian thought of "benefiting people". He believes that there is no meaning without reason. Only by giving people practical utilitarianism can we show bright morality. Thirdly, he emphasized the idea of governing the country with power and decentralization. He believed that it was necessary to strengthen the advantages of the monarch and appropriately delegate power to the local authorities in order to handle the relationship between the central and local authorities.
The Political Thought of Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties
First, Zhang Zai's political thought
Zhang Zai's academic thought has a great influence on later generations. His works have always been regarded as one of the representatives of philosophy by the Ming and Qing governments, and they are required to read in the imperial examination. The main point of Zhang Zai's thought is that he believes that the origin of the universe is Qi. He said: "Too empty and invisible, the noumenon of qi." There is gathering gas to disperse without creating heaven, gathering gas to form everything, and dispersing gas to form emptiness. He believes that the universe is a process with no beginning and no end. In this process, it is full of contradictory movements such as floating and sinking, rising and falling, and moving and static. He also summed up the contradictory changes of things as "two in one" relationship, saying: "If two things don't stand, they are invisible, and intangible is for use." It is believed that two and one are interrelated and interdependent, "two have one" and "if one has two". His political thoughts are as follows: First, falsely accusing the peasant uprising as a thief, but paying more attention to reality, understanding the poverty situation of farmers, opposing land annexation and poverty expropriation, advocating economic development so that people can live and work in peace and contentment, and achieving "people's satisfaction and stopping stealing". Secondly, in order to achieve "human foot", the theory of "minefield" is put forward. The specific thinking is: take the world as the state-owned, "if you dare not follow the scholars, you must make the people follow;" More fields make you rich, the world is divided, and people are subject to one side; For landlords who originally owned land, according to the number of their fields, they were appointed as "field officials" of different sizes, allowing them to collect tithe land rent in the fief; However, "after 10 or 20 years, it is still necessary to legislate separately", and the sage was elected as a field official to replace the original owner.
Second, Cheng's view of justice
Cheng Cheng's political thought is based on their Neo-Confucianism. Cheng Cheng put forward the following political views: First, the view of heaven and justice, and put forward the proposition that "heaven is a rational person". Second, put forward the idea that "benevolence is the foundation of king". Thirdly, the people-oriented thought of "following the people's heart" is put forward, and it is believed that to consolidate the ruling foundation of the Song Dynasty, it is necessary to follow the people's heart, enrich the people's lives, and make the people's heart stable without making chaos. Fourth, the "fixed position" view of monarch and Taoism. Fifthly, according to the talent view of "being virtuous", Cheng believes that to govern the world, we must know people and be good at their duties. Fifth, the concept of "benevolence and righteousness cannot be unfavorable" holds that the principle of benevolence and righteousness cannot be lost in seeking profit.
Third, Zhu's political thought
Zhu's political thought is based on his view of justice. His political views are as follows: first, the theory of heaven, which holds that reason is the foundation of all things, has moral attributes and is the fundamental criterion of feudal morality. Second, the benevolent government thought of "ruling by virtue". In his view, the monarch mainly abides by Wang Zhidao and implements benevolent government first, so as to make the world submit. Third, the people-oriented thought of "food is the most important thing for the people" holds that the root of the people lies in having enough food and clothing and knowing how to abide by etiquette and the order of absolute monarchy. Fourth, the debate on righteousness and benefit of "benevolence and righteousness first". Fifth, the political proposition of "accumulating good and accumulating bad", he first proposed measures such as reforming the military system, cracking down on the mighty, preventing mergers and reducing taxes.
Fourthly, Wang Yangming's political thought.
Wang Yangming inherited Confucius' and Mencius' thought of benevolent governance in political thought, and put forward a political proposition centered on "being close to the people by virtue", that is, carrying forward benevolence and making people clear with heart, so as to achieve the goal of governing the country and leveling the world. In addition, in terms of specific political opinions, Wang Yangming has specific measures for local governance. For example, in social studies, he strongly advocated giving priority to education and setting up social studies; Rural convention and "ten brands"
The overall characteristics of China's Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties
1, speculative Confucianism is different from Confucianism in the pre-Qin, Han and Tang dynasties, and a prominent feature of Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties is speculative. After Buddhism was introduced into China, its philosophical speculation deeply attracted China intellectuals and stimulated the development of China's local religions-Taoism and Confucianism. But relatively speaking, the response of Confucianism generally lags behind.
2. Confucianism with ethics as the core From the perspective of the development of Confucianism itself, Neo-Confucianism, as a philosophical trend of thought or a revival movement of Confucianism, emphasizes the theory of righteousness and reason, which is a reaction to Confucianism in Han and Tang Dynasties, showing a trend of abandoning the exegetical theory of Han and Tang Dynasties, directly facing the classics and returning to the way of saints, which is quite "revival". Neo-Confucianism flaunts its own theories as "practical learning" and "telling the truth", and criticizes Buddhism and Lao's theories as "virtual learning" and "virtual theory", as well as the study of chapters and sentences in Han and Tang Dynasties and the study of poetry that emphasizes Tao Ci. The difference between truth and falsehood lies in whether to emphasize Confucian justice. The righteousness emphasized by Neo-Confucianism is essentially the Confucian ethical theory, including the rigid human relations advocated by Confucianism and the "why" and "why" contained in it.
3. As a stage of the development of Confucianism, Confucianism, Neo-Confucianism and Buddhism and Taoism have obvious characteristics. The integration of Buddhism and Taoism by Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties is manifested in three aspects: one is to learn from and absorb the world outlook and ontology of Buddhism and Taoism to construct the philosophical theoretical basis of Confucianism; Second, learn from the legal system of Buddhism and Taoism, and establish the Confucian missionary system, that is, the Confucian "Taoist system"; The third is to absorb the asceticism preaching of Buddha and Lao as a basic thought of Neo-Confucianism and put forward the moral proposition of "keeping righteousness and destroying human desires".