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analytical philosophy
analytical philosophy
A school or trend of thought of modern western philosophy takes linguistic analysis as its philosophical method. Mainly includes logical empiricism and philosophy of everyday language (see philosophy of everyday language? ), including critical rationalists and analytical philosophers who did not belong to these tribes after the 1960s. Since 1930s, analytical philosophy has been in a dominant position in British and American philosophy.
The basic idea of analytical philosophy was first seen by German philosopher and logician G Frege at the end of 19. In his works, it was formally formed in Britain at the beginning of the 20th century. It was inherited from D. Hume? Idealism, empiricism and A. Comte? ，e.mach？ The positivism tradition of et al. was developed on the basis of mathematical logic that arose at that time. Does it have a great influence on New hegelianism, which was dominant in British philosophy at that time? A kind of resistance. Its founders are mainly British B.A.W Russell besides Frey. G.e. Moore? L. Wittgenstein? Waiting for someone. Frege is the main founder of modern mathematical logic and analytical philosophy. His contribution to analytical philosophy mainly lies in that his mathematical logic has become the main research method of most analytical philosophers, and his philosophy of language has also had a great influence on later analytical philosophy. In addition, he also expressed his admiration for Russell, Wittgenstein and Carnap, another major representative of analytical philosophy. And so on have had a direct impact. In the process of establishing analytical philosophy, Russell first emphasized that formal analysis or logical analysis should be regarded as the inherent method of philosophy and widely used. He criticized everyday language and advocated the creation of an accurate artificial language system. He also put forward the theory of type and description? . His views have a great influence on logical empiricism. Moore's contribution to analytical philosophy mainly lies in his discussion and application of conceptual analysis methods, emphasizing common sense and everyday language. His views have a great influence on the distribution of everyday linguistics. Wittgenstein is the most influential analytical philosopher after Russell. What is his logical atomism? Early philosophical thoughts such as image theory and truth function theory have great influence on logical empiricism; His later thoughts, such as language game theory, tool theory and meaning theory, have great influence on the distribution of daily linguistics.
The school of logical empiricism in analytical philosophy, also known as logical positivism or neo-positivism, was formed in Austria in the mid-1920s, and its core is M? The main members of the Vienna School founded by Carnap and Newrat? , Hann, etc. In addition, with H. Reichenbach? German positive philosophy association led by polish a Talsky? Warsaw logician school? And a.j. Eier from England? The views and theories of Keira and others in Northern Europe belong to the category of logical empiricism. From the mid-1920s to the mid-1930s, logical empiricism was at its peak in Europe. Its basic viewpoints can be roughly summarized as follows: ① The task of philosophy is to make a logical analysis of knowledge, especially scientific language. (2) Insist on the distinction between analytical proposition and comprehensive proposition, emphasizing that metaphysical proposition is neither analytical proposition nor comprehensive proposition, but a false proposition with no cognitive significance, and thus put forward the slogan of "eliminating metaphysics through logical analysis of language". However, after1940s, this anti-metaphysical tendency gradually weakened. ③ It emphasizes that all comprehensive propositions are based on experience, and puts forward the principle of verifiability. It holds that comprehensive propositions have cognitive significance only if they can be verified or falsified by experience in principle. Later, this principle was refuted and replaced by a more moderate "testability principle" or "verifiability principle". ④ It is argued that physical language is the universal language of science, and on this basis, it is proposed to restore all empirical sciences to physical sciences in order to realize "scientific unity".
The philosophy of common language in analytical philosophy was formed in Britain from 1930s to 1940s. Including J.T.D Weston? Represented by Cambridge School? And then by g. Ryle? J. Austin P.f. strawson? Oxford school, represented by others? . Their basic viewpoints are as follows: ① They think that everyday language itself is perfect, and the confusion in philosophy is due to philosophers deviating from the correct usage of everyday language. By studying the usage of daily language, we can clarify or "cure" the confusion in philosophy, so there is no need to establish an artificial language system. ② It is considered that metaphysical propositions are absurd but enlightening, and the task of philosophers is to understand the structure of conceptual systems by studying absurd metaphysical propositions. ③ Emphasize the semantic analysis of everyday language, advocate the study of everyday language itself and usage, and make a detailed analysis of some specific words related to cognition.
In the development before and after World War II, when A. Hitler came to power in the late 1930s, logical empiricists from the European continent moved to the United States one after another, and the United States became the center of logical empiricism. From 1940s to 1950s, logical empiricism was influenced by Carnap, Reichenbach, feigl? , C.G. hempel? The spread of others has gradually replaced pragmatism and occupied a dominant position in American philosophy. Meanwhile, some American philosophers combine it with pragmatism. So, Lewis the informant? Conceptual Pragmatism, C.W. Morris? This kind of "scientific empiricism" also appeared in the 1950 s, with W.V.O Quinn? "Logical Pragmatism" represented by others. Quinn initially held the view of logical empiricism, then turned to attack some basic viewpoints, denied the distinction between analytical propositions and comprehensive propositions, opposed the principle of confirmation and reductionism, and put forward the concept of "holism" test theory and ontological commitment. Logical empiricism was influenced by Quinn and the philosopher of science T.S. Kuhn? People's fierce criticism failed to solve many theoretical problems, so it gradually declined after the 1960s.
In the late 1950s, the philosophy of general language also spread in the United States. W.s. Silas? Mr Chisholm? , J.R. Searle? Other analytical philosophers accept its influence more. Silas inherited and developed Wittgenstein's important view that the meaning of a word lies in its usage, and thought that understanding the meaning of a word means understanding its function in language. He also pointed out that meaning does not refer to the relationship between a word and external things, but to the relationship between one language item and another. Influenced by the semantic analysis method of general language philosophy, Chisholm attached great importance to the detailed analysis of some words related to cognition. Searle is committed to inheriting and developing Austin's speech act theory. His research on proper names and speech acts of strengthening semantics was highly valued by American analytical philosophy circles in the 1970s. The philosophy of common language in Britain gradually declined after the 1960s, and most of the subsequent analytical philosophers turned to the study of philosophical logic.
During the 1960s and 1970s, British and American analytical philosophers made some new progress in the fields of philosophy of science and philosophy of language. In the philosophy of science, Kuhn, P.K., Feijie and Abend? Historical and social school represented by Silas and H Putnam? Represented by scientific realism, it replaced logical empiricism and occupied a dominant position. In philosophy of language and philosophical logic, D.H. Davidson? , J. Hintikka, S.A. Kripke? M.A.E Damit? Others developed or supplemented and modified Frege's, Russell's, Carnap's and Talsky's viewpoints in different ways. In the aspect of spiritual philosophy, Carnap and Ryle's behaviorism and feigl's theory of mind-brain identity? , has given way to Australia's central national materialism and functionalism. Psychologically, because of a.n. Chomsky? The influence of the new cognitive psychology (see cognitive psychology school) has completely replaced the behavioral psychology school? State. The penetration and research of analytical philosophy in natural language semantics, scientific realism and cognitive psychology shows its development trend to some extent. In addition, in northern Europe and the Federal Republic of Germany, analytical philosophy is also very influential so far.
The philosophy of basic feature analysis is a very complex ideological trend or school, which has many differences not only among its tribes, but even within a tribe. Nevertheless, their views still have some common characteristics. This is mainly manifested in the following aspects: ① attaching importance to the role of language in philosophy, and taking language analysis as the primary task of philosophy, even as its only task. Analytical philosophers generally attribute all philosophical problems to language problems, and think that the confusion of philosophy is caused by the abuse or misuse of language, and many philosophical disputes can be attributed to language disputes. They attribute the content of philosophy to logical analysis of scientific language or semantic analysis of everyday language. They think that philosophy is not a theory, but an activity. The task of philosophers is not to discover and put forward new propositions, but to explain ideas and make existing propositions clear. They emphasize the influence of language on philosophy, attach importance to the study of language problems, and emphasize the clarity of concepts and the rigor of reasoning. This view has its rationality. However, they attribute all philosophical problems to language problems, and think that the task of philosophy is not to explore the origin and essence of the world, not to study the general development laws of nature, society and thinking, but to analyze language logically or semantically, which denies the theoretical significance of philosophy as a world outlook and epistemology, thus denying philosophy itself. Moreover, although the emergence of philosophical confusion does not rule out the abuse or misuse of language, the most fundamental reason should be found in epistemology and the politics and economy of a certain society. Therefore, only relying on language analysis can not completely expose the essence of philosophical puzzles, let alone eradicate them.
② Generally attach importance to analytical methods. Russell, early Wittgenstein and logical empiricists all put great emphasis on formal analysis or logical analysis, that is, analyzing the form of language from the perspective of pure logic and studying the reality and final structure of language. Moore, later Wittgenstein and general philosophy of language all emphasize conceptual analysis or linguistic analysis, that is, to study various characteristics and characteristics of concepts and their relationships, and carefully analyze some specific words related to cognition. As a research method, analysis can play a certain role, and this method has achieved some positive results in language philosophy and so on. However, these analytical philosophers exaggerate the analytical method as the main or even the only method of philosophical research, and often separate the content and form of language when applying it. Because of their one-sided emphasis on analysis and neglect of synthesis, their research results are often cumbersome and cannot give a comprehensive, generalized and comprehensive explanation of their cognitive objects.
③ Oppose the establishment of a huge philosophical system and advocate that philosophical problems should be solved from small problems to small ones. Analytical philosophers, especially logical empiricists, emphasize the need to establish their own theories on the basis of natural sciences, especially mathematics and physics, so that their concepts and arguments are as accurate as natural sciences. They established a set of professional terms with mathematical logic as the main research method. However, due to their one-sided emphasis on the scientific nature of philosophical research, they put most or even all of their energy into studying some minor issues, ignoring or refusing to study the basic issues of philosophy, which led to their research deviating from the essence of philosophy, divorced from real social life and becoming purely academic research.
The schools of analytical philosophy are complex and need concrete analysis, especially to distinguish their mathematical logic and its formal research methods from their philosophical conclusions. The former is mostly of scientific value, while the latter is often idealistic.
"Dual system" is an educational system in German society, which refers to the implementation of "dual system" in vocational education, that is, the combination of theoretical study in vocational schools and enterprise practice to popularize adult education and amateur education.
Germany's "dual system" is one of the more successful vocational education modes in the world at present, and it is known as the "secret weapon" of Germany's economic take-off after World War II. The so-called "dual system" is a mode of running vocational education in which schools and enterprises jointly complete the whole process of talent training.
First, there are clear training objectives. That is, to cultivate high-quality first-line skilled workers or skilled farmers.
Second, enterprises and schools coordinate with each other, focusing on enterprises.
Third, theory and practice should be closely integrated, and practice should be given priority. Practical courses account for more than 60% of the whole training.
In the final analysis, the dominant philosophy in Germany at that time was "analytical philosophy"
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