The founder of Confucianism is Confucius in the Spring and Autumn Period. Confucianism is the most important branch of the traditional values of the Chinese nation, and it has become the mainstream values throughout the history of the Chinese nation with its strong moral consciousness and political ideals.
basic concept
Ethics: Benevolence is the general program of Confucian ethics. Benevolence is love, and the monarch is mainly sympathetic to the people's feelings and cherishes the people's strength. People should respect their teachers and live in harmony with their neighbors. To practice kindness, we need loyalty and forgiveness. Loyalty is doing one's duty, and forgiveness is pushing others. It advocates restraining people's behavior and cultivating people's temperament with courtesy and pleasure.
Political outlook: The Western Zhou Dynasty advocated the rule of courtesy and righteousness, and restored the rule of virtue. People from all walks of life should do their part to achieve harmony between Jun Jun, ministers and father and son.
Concept of education: Confucius put forward the idea of "teaching without class" and advocated that education should not be divided into noble, cheap, noble, virtuous and stupid. He believes that teaching students in accordance with their aptitude is an ideal teaching method. He advocates learning new things by reviewing old ones.
Cosmology: We hold the attitude of "guarding ghosts and gods" and advocate "staying away from ghosts and gods", but attach great importance to ancestor worship.
Later, Mencius discussed benevolence with "the theory of good nature". He believes that human nature is good, and there are four good ends: compassion, shame, resignation and right and wrong. Carrying them forward can form the virtues of benevolence, righteousness, courtesy and wisdom.
Xunzi advocated the theory of "evil nature", holding that human beings are no different from animals, "hunger is full, cold is warm", and if they obey human nature, they will inevitably cause disputes. He advocates changing human nature through education, getting rid of evil and doing good. Gou Zi emphasized the maintenance of social order through "rule by courtesy" so that people from all walks of life can perform their duties.
The "benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faith" advocated by Confucianism has been highly praised by rulers and academic circles in past dynasties, and has become the core of China's traditional thought and the mainstream of morality.
Enlightenment of Confucian "Harmony" Ethics in Pre-Qin Dynasty to Harmonious Society
Posted by: eyes
Release date: April 20, 2006
Building a harmonious socialist society is an important strategic move of Socialism with Chinese characteristics. Harmony, as the intrinsic spirit and distinctive feature of China traditional culture, has a profound cultural history. In the pre-Qin Confucian ethics, there are many rich ideas about "harmony". It is of great theoretical and practical significance to fully absorb the essence of ancient Confucian ethics for building a harmonious socialist society today. This paper combs the thoughts of harmony between people, interpersonal harmony and individual's own physical and mental harmony in the pre-Qin Confucian "harmony" ethics, and briefly discusses its significance to building a harmonious socialist society.
Keywords harmonious society Confucian ecological ethics interpersonal harmony
The socialist harmonious society we want to build is characterized by justice, development and fairness, including democracy and the rule of law, fairness and justice, honesty and friendship, vitality, stability and order, and harmony between man and nature. This kind of harmonious society has both the commonality of human social ideals and the characteristics of the Chinese nation. Only by building a harmonious society on the basis of China's history and culture and China's specific national conditions can we not lose a solid foundation. Therefore, we should fully explore the essence of China traditional culture and provide ideological and cultural resources for building a harmonious socialist society.
"Harmony" is the main category of China's ancient ethical thought, and it is also an important feature and precious heritage of China's traditional culture. Confucian ethics, as a valuable historical material of China's traditional culture, is permeated with the idea of "harmony" from the aspects of the relationship between man and nature, personal practice and interpersonal communication, and even the ruling will of the ruling class. In a sense, "harmony" has become the goal of the whole society. As the mainstream of traditional culture in China, Confucianism has played a positive role in shaping the spirit of the Chinese nation. It can provide rich enlightenment and reference for us to build a harmonious socialist society, stabilize and develop the socialist society today. This paper mainly combs the Confucian ethical thought of "harmony" from three angles: the harmony between man and nature, the harmony of interpersonal relationship and the harmony of individual body and mind.
First, the harmony between man and nature.
China culture is a culture based on farming. In the early stage of farming culture, the forces of "heaven" or nature had a great influence on human beings. Therefore, it is very important for human life to know nature, know "heaven" and keep consistent with "heaven". It should be said that in ancient China, people's worship of heaven and nature and early scientific understanding of the calendar were closely related to agricultural production. Because agricultural production can only have a good harvest if it conforms to nature, the four seasons and the time. This production practice has greatly influenced China's ethics. Therefore, in the ancient culture of China, there must be a lot of viewpoints of "harmony between man and nature", "return to nature" and "harmony between man and nature".
(1) Confucianism believes that man is a part of nature, and we should love nature and life.
In the ancient culture of China, the relationship between man and nature was first manifested as "the relationship between man and nature", and Confucianism advocated "the unity of man and nature". Of course, in Confucianism, "heaven" includes many meanings such as "natural sky", "social sky", "ethical sky" and "personality sky". This paper mainly discusses the Confucian viewpoint of harmonious coexistence between man and nature from the perspective of "natural heaven". "What are you talking about? When you are at four o'clock, everything is born. What does the sky say? " [1] In this passage, Confucianism affirmed that "heaven" is a nature that contains the four seasons and the growth of all things, and is the source of all things, including human beings. Confucianism emphasizes "life", advocates "benevolence", affirms the intrinsic value of everything in the world, and advocates being kind to nature and loving life. "Mencius is dedicated" has "a gentleman is to things, and love is benevolent; Be kind to people, be kind to them. Be kind to the people, be kind to the people and love things. " Zhu's interpretation of the words "love" and "things" in Mencius' Annotation is as follows: "love": sometimes take it and use it moderately; "Things": animals and plants. Obviously, "Kiss the people, kiss the people and love the people." It is the embodiment of the unity of ecological morality and interpersonal morality and the harmony between man and nature.
(2) Confucianism emphasizes "taking the right way" and "taking the right degree" according to the laws of nature.
There is a saying in the Analects of Confucius, "Catch without netting, swim without shooting overnight." Just don't catch the current with a net when fishing, and don't pat the bird's nest when hunting. This is the embodiment of the ancient simple idea of "inexhaustible", ecological morality and sustainable development of animals and plants. "Mencius Hui Liang Wang Shang" also said that "if you don't go against the farming season, the valley can't win the grain; If you don't count, neither fish nor turtle can be eaten. Axes and pounds enter the mountains in time, and wood and firewood cannot be used. " In other words, it emphasizes the importance of taking things in time and doing things according to the laws of nature for agricultural production.
(3) Confucianism believes that natural resources are limited, and both open source and throttling should be paid equal attention to in the utilization of natural resources.
"Strong is frugal, poor is not; If you are prepared and move, you will not get sick; If you practice (follow) the Tao, then Heaven can't be a disaster. So floods and droughts can't make it hungry, cold and heat can't make it sick, and monsters can't make it fierce. If you use it frugally, you can't make it rich. If you lift a little, move a little, then heaven can't do it all; Wrong, the sky can't make it lucky. " [2] Xunzi believes that as long as people grasp the fundamentals of agriculture and practice thrift, they cannot make it poor; With sufficient health resources, people will not be hurt on earth if they are cultivated according to seasons. To meet the people's growing material needs, developing agriculture is fundamental. But at the same time, we must realize that natural resources are limited, so we should practise economy. Only in this way can we meet people's needs and form sustainable development without destroying the ecological environment and exhausting resources. What is valuable is that Xunzi saw that people are differentiated from nature, but they have different characteristics from nature, such as being able to participate (people can adapt to the weather, adapt to the geographical location, and participate in natural changes) and live in groups, produce purposefully for social progress, and formulate rules and regulations. Therefore, people are not completely powerless in front of nature. If we can't see the dynamic role of human beings, it is not in line with the actual situation of human beings to ask for the gift of nature. This idea is consistent in balancing the protection of nature and the harmonious coexistence between man and nature. It protects and saves nature in development, is a dynamic balance between man and nature based on man's rationality, and is a sustainable development that gives full play to man's subjective initiative to solve problems in development.
Confucian ecological ethics can be summarized as follows: man is a part of nature, and man and nature coexist. People should actively understand, utilize and transform nature according to objective laws, and realize the harmonious coexistence between man and nature. This kind of ecological ethics of Confucianism has important reference significance for us to build a harmonious socialist society. The relationship between man and nature is the most basic relationship for human survival and development, and it is also the primary relationship that must be seriously dealt with to realize the sustainable development of society. The harmonious development between man and nature is an important content of building a harmonious socialist society. With the progress of science and technology and the acceleration of modernization, China has created huge material wealth, but neglected the harmony between man and nature, resulting in serious ecological imbalance and great damage to the natural environment and social environment. The Confucian concept of "harmony between man and nature" gives us the enlightenment that no matter how advanced science and technology are, the nature of human dependence and connection with nature will never change. Therefore, as the nature of human home, people should protect it. Once nature is harmed, it will destroy human beings and their own living environment, which is also one of the basic viewpoints of sustainable development. The value of Confucian thought of harmony between man and nature lies in realizing that man's understanding of nature has initiative. At present, a large number of ecological problems in China are precisely the embodiment of human beings' failure to fully understand and respect the laws of nature. Therefore, while promoting the development of science and technology, we must make better use of scientific knowledge, understand objective laws, respect and conform to nature, develop and utilize nature reasonably and moderately, establish a harmonious and synchronous development relationship with nature, and realize the goal of "harmony between man and nature".
Second, the harmony of interpersonal relationships.
The "five permanents" advocated by Confucianism is the basic criterion for dealing with interpersonal relationships. It has great reference value for building harmonious interpersonal relationships. Below, mainly from the five angles of benevolence, righteousness, courtesy, wisdom and faithfulness, we will talk about the Confucian thought of "five permanents" and its significance to building a harmonious socialist interpersonal relationship.
(A) Confucianism to "benevolence" as the basic idea of dealing with interpersonal relationships.
When Fan Chi asked Confucius "what is benevolence", Confucius replied "love" [3] To love others is kindness, and a benevolent person loves others, that is, when people get along with me, they love all people and get along well with all people. It is particularly noteworthy here that the "lover" advocated by Confucianism refers to the person who loves as a "class". "Man" here does not refer to a certain class or part of society, but to all people who are opposed to the animal kingdom. Whether adults in office or Shu Ren people without status, whether free or enslaved, whether China people or barbarians, whether China people or barbarians, they treat each other humanely. When Confucius answered "Yan Yuan asked about benevolence", he said: "Self-denial is benevolence." [4] "self-denial" is to restrain yourself; "Paying attention to ceremony" means putting external etiquette norms into practice. "Self-denial and courtesy", that is, through self-cultivation, to get rid of one's bad side and make one's physical and mental words and deeds reach the standard of a gentleman, is the premise of love. Confucius' "self-denial and courtesy" is the basis of his handling of interpersonal relationships. It emphasizes: first, when people get along with me, they must first conform to ethics and social norms in audio-visual, speech and action; Second, when people get along with me, they should take etiquette as the standard and don't go their own way.
The Confucian theory of "loving one's family" to "loving all people", as a criterion for dealing with interpersonal relations, is regarded as the basic ethical norm of harmonious and orderly interpersonal relations. Although these thoughts have a feudal color of hierarchy, they reflect the humanistic spirit of the ancients in pursuing harmonious interpersonal relationships and respecting the interests, values, wills and wishes of others. It is of great significance for maintaining socialist moral order, improving interpersonal relationship and building a harmonious socialist society to get rid of the dross of maintaining feudal hierarchy, inherit its essence and give it new connotation of interpersonal value that meets the requirements of the times.
(2) "Righteousness" is the Confucian moral standard for dealing with the relationship between individuals and others, material and spiritual.
It embodies the principle and sublimity of social behavior. Confucius said in The Analects of Confucius, Wei Linggong, "Benevolent people, benevolent people, there is no harm to benevolence, and death is benevolence." "The Analects of Confucius" has "wealth, which is what people want; If you don't follow the path, there is nowhere. Poverty and meanness are disgusting to people; Don't go if you don't get it by the way. " In Confucius' view, "righteousness" is a moral will higher than life. He stressed that he would rather sacrifice his life than lose this moral will. Similarly, "righteousness" should not be wealth or poverty. Confucius was not opposed to pursuing wealth and getting rid of poverty. It's just that if getting rich and getting rid of poverty and lowliness are harmful to people's moral will, it can't be done. This noble and righteous thought in Mencius became "wealth can't be lewd, poverty can't be moved, and powerful people can't bend." [5]
In the view of Confucianism, "righteousness" requires people to always adhere to the moral will that cannot be discarded at any time and under any circumstances. Confucianism attaches great importance to "righteousness": without it, "benevolence" cannot be embodied. This noble thought has developed into a fine tradition of the Chinese nation advocating revolutionary integrity and national integrity. Today, in building a harmonious society, the problems of life and death, wealth and poverty are still problems that people need to reflect calmly. With the rapid development of the socialist market economy, we should especially learn from the Confucian concept of justice and benefit, and pursue a happy life in an appropriate way, so as to realize a valuable life. Thirdly, as far as society is concerned, "righteousness" requires people to put social interests first, and never destroy others and social interests because of personal interests. The Confucian thought of putting social interests first is of great significance for maintaining social order. In socialist harmony, personal interests and social interests are basically the same. The realization of social interests is the premise of personal interests; At the same time, individuals' choice of their own behavior must also be based on social interests, and they must never do whatever they want.
(3) Confucian "ceremony" refers to the norms and etiquette of moral life.
Confucian thoughts on "etiquette" can be summarized as follows: First, people's moral life is required to conform to the norms of social system. Abiding by "courtesy" means observing the social system and maintaining social order. Second, people are required to pay attention to etiquette in their moral life. This is an important form of interpersonal emotional communication and interpersonal harmony. Confucius said in the Analects of Confucius Ji Shi: "If you don't learn etiquette, you will have nothing to stand for." Mencius once said, "Rules are the best for party member; A saint is also a saint of interpersonal relationship. " [6]
Confucianism advocates the moral standard of "ceremony", which mainly requires people to abide by the social norms of the national patriarchal clan system. Through the hierarchy of monarch and minister, father and son, rich and poor, high and low, the whole social group behaves appropriately. As a ruling thought adapted to the economic foundation and social conditions of feudal society, it was of great significance to the development of productive forces and the maintenance of social order at that time. Although this moral standard of maintaining feudal system is fundamentally different from the moral standard advocated by us in building a harmonious socialist society today in terms of starting point and purpose. However, the Confucian moral standards that people should follow certain etiquette and rituals in their daily lives still have certain reference value for us. Etiquette is a reflection of people's moral life, and its fundamental purpose is to standardize the behavior of individuals towards others and society, make interpersonal relationships more harmonious, and be conducive to the stability of the overall social order. Among them, opposing extravagance and waste and paying attention to sincerity, tolerance, humility and politeness in interpersonal communication are still indispensable factors in building a harmonious socialist society.
(4) Confucian "wisdom" refers to people's intelligence and knowledge.
Only with wisdom can we know people's responsibilities and distinguish right from wrong. The Confucian thought of "wisdom" is mainly reflected in the following aspects: first, it pays attention to the impartial understanding of people and things; Then, we have a deep understanding of moral principles and norms, and clearly distinguish between right and wrong moral principles. Confucius said, "He who knows is not confused.". [7] Mencius also said that "the heart of right and wrong is also wise"; [8] "The truth of wisdom, knowing the second." [9]
In the moral standard of Confucian wisdom, an important content is to pay attention to the impartial understanding of the golden mean. At the same time, the same is true for the understanding of morality. If personal behavior conforms to the moral principles and norms of society impartially, we must learn these norms by doing our best. Similarly, the development of socialist harmonious society also requires individuals to attach importance to wisdom, advocate morality and emphasize the importance of cultural literacy and humanistic literacy. Only by constantly learning and updating knowledge and self-moral cultivation can individuals achieve the harmonious development of IQ and EQ. Therefore, attaching importance to the development of individual moral subjectivity and cultivating self-moral cultivation ability are still important contents of civic moral construction in a harmonious socialist society.
The Confucian moral code "faithfulness" requires people to be honest and trustworthy.
"Faith" is regarded by Confucianism as the basic principle in the world. Confucius said, "People without faith don't know what they can do"; [10] "People cannot stand without faith". [1 1] He believes that a person who fails to keep his word when interacting with others in society will inevitably be spurned by society. At the same time, Confucianism believes that faith and righteousness are interrelated, and faith is a principled letter. For example, Mencius said, "You don't have to believe what you say, but you don't have to bear fruit when you do it. Only righteousness exists. " A harmonious socialist society is a society of honesty and friendship. Honesty is the basic requirement for people to get along with each other and the premise of friendship. Without honesty, there will be no trust and understanding between people, no friendly care, let alone social harmony. Needless to say, there is a considerable lack of honesty in today's society, such as fraud, intrigue and deception. Learning from the Confucian concept of honesty, such as "sincerity of people" and "faith comes from the heart", is conducive to solving the current problem of honesty.
In addition, we should absorb the filial piety thought of Confucianism, maintain its fine tradition of respecting the old and loving the young, inject mutual respect and friendship, and establish a new socialist family ethics relationship; Absorbing the Confucian thought of loyalty and forgiveness, dealing with interpersonal relationships with care, treating others equally and tolerating opinions and behaviors different from their own, which embodies the combination of tolerance spirit and socialist democracy and freedom spirit; Absorb his brave thoughts, set up correct and lofty goals in life, and be brave in practice; Absorb his thrifty thoughts of honest and frank, be impartial, and maintain noble personality and integrity; Absorb his frugality and honesty, honesty and self-discipline, thrift.
Third, the self-harmony of individual body and mind.
Self-harmony of individual body and mind, in a sense, is a problem of personal cultivation. Social ethics can only play a role if it is transformed into people's conscious moral consciousness, moral quality and moral behavior. Thinkers in the history of China realized this a long time ago. Therefore, in China's ancient thoughts, there is no lack of discussion on physical and mental cultivation. The following discusses the Confucian thought of self-cultivation from three aspects: self-cultivation, introspection and practice.
(A) Confucian "self-cultivation" runs through a person's life.
The core of Confucius' cultivation theory is "benevolence-courtesy": "benevolence" is for the cultivation of virtue; "Rite" is to conform to social norms. Internal cultivation can be manifested as the rationality of behavior through the practice of external norms, and the ideal of benevolence can be realized in the harmonious unity of internal and external. "If you don't learn etiquette, you can't stand it"; [13] "A gentleman has a gift, he can make a promise by courtesy, and he can also be the husband on the other side" [14] and so on all emphasize that "courtesy" is an external norm to restrain and regulate his behavior in order to meet the requirements of "benevolence". To sum up, it is "self-denial and courtesy": self-denial and courtesy, restraint of one's words and deeds with courtesy, and restraint of one's behavior with courtesy. The cultivation method of Confucian self-cultivation requires people to consciously eradicate their own social moral principles and norms to cultivate their own moral quality and improve their moral realm. Confucius believes that moral learning in any era is based on "benevolence", and the combination of learning and thinking is the key to whether a person's thoughts can conform to social moral principles and norms.
(B) Confucian cultivation with special emphasis on "introspection."
Confucius emphasized not only learning, but also reflection. There is a saying in the Analects of Confucius: "I visit three times a day: am I cheating for others?" Don't believe in making friends? Can't you learn? "The Analects of Confucius said," Think of fools when you see sages, but introspect when you don't see sages. "See people who are virtuous to me and learn from him; When you see bad people or things, you should pay special attention to your inner reflection and check whether you have similar problems in order to correct them. In Confucius' view, thinking and introspection are both spiritual reflection or introspection activities related to one's moral cultivation. If a person only studies without reflecting on his moral quality, it is meaningless and will not improve his moral quality. In this regard, Mencius also said: "Everything is ready for me, and I am sincere and happy." [15] The "sincerity" here means introspection and self-blame, and doing good for yourself. The high realm of "introspection" can be regarded as "cautious independence". There is a saying in the Book of Rites, "Those who are Tao can't leave for a moment, and those who are not Tao can leave. So a gentleman is wary of what he can't see, and fear is almost unheard of. If you don't see it, you don't show it, so the gentleman is cautious. " "Being cautious and independent" means not doing immoral things in secret or violating morality in trivial matters. When you are alone and no one is paying attention, you should consciously think and act according to certain political and moral principles and not do bad things. If introspection is to restrain individual behavior through external norms, then prudence is to rely on the moral consciousness of the subject to achieve the purpose of self-cultivation.
(C) The purpose of Confucian self-cultivation is "practice"
Emphasizing the unity of knowing and doing is an important feature of Confucian self-cultivation thought. Confucius said, "Be sensitive to things, but cautious about words"; [16] "Listen to what he says and watch what he does". [17] Xunzi thought that "learning is enough". [18] Both of them regard moral practice as the basic skill and evaluation standard of moral cultivation. The golden mean emphasizes the importance of moral practice and that moral knowledge is not external knowledge. Moral knowledge must be combined with moral practice and with one's own life, which is the real knowledge. Confucianism believes that moral cultivation is not only the cultivation of moral thought, but also the implementation of social moral principles and norms; Only through the implementation of social moral principles and norms can moral cultivation be truly implemented.
The harmonious society we advocate today is a society in which spirit and material progress together. Confucianism attaches importance to the harmonious development of individual body and mind and pursues the unity of spiritual value and material value, which provides many inspirations for people to form positive attitudes and values of self-cultivation, study and health, and promote the coordinated development of material civilization and spiritual civilization. For example, pay attention to subjective efforts in self-cultivation and turn self-cultivation into a conscious internal need; In cultivation, we should be honest, introspective and cautious, and internalize external moral norms into our own moral literacy; In terms of self-cultivation, it is important to establish oneself, make meritorious deeds and be virtuous. There are both creation and contribution, and self-cultivation and achievement are unified. Confucianism not only attaches importance to self-cultivation and family planning, but also emphasizes achievement, which is considered as a whole. In the Book of Rites, there is a saying that "those who want virtue in ancient times should rule their country first;" If you want to govern the country first, you should cultivate yourself first; If you want to cultivate yourself, you should be upright first; Those who want to be right. First of all, be sincere; Be sincere, let him know first; Knowledge exists in things. If things are known, then honesty, then honesty, then righteousness, then repair, then repair, then rule the country, then rule the world. "It can be seen that self-cultivation is the key to achieving the social goal of family harmony and peace. So how to cultivate yourself? It lies in things, knowledge, honesty and integrity. Today, when building a harmonious socialist society, we still need to advocate the life values of self-cultivation, self-improvement and achievement. Self-improvement, mainly the improvement of personality and morality; The achievements are mainly for the country, the nation and the society. And both of them are unified on the point of self-cultivation. The socialist harmonious society emphasizes the all-round development of human beings. People's all-round development requires personal accomplishment first. Only when a person has a certain quality in mind and soul can he develop in all directions. This shows how to improve people's cultivation; How to introspect and introspect frequently with advanced ideas and constantly turn over a new leaf; Confucianism provides us with rich and valuable experience on how to improve our moral level.
Four. Concluding remarks
From the above analysis, we can see several characteristics of Confucian harmonious ethics. First, the harmony between man and nature embodies the Confucian ethics that emphasizes the harmony between man and nature, and has the characteristics of harmonious coexistence with nature. Secondly, the harmony between individuals and others, individuals and society reflects their humanistic spirit of emphasizing people-oriented, "love", love between people, peace and harmony; At the same time, the Confucian emphasis on loyalty, filial piety, chastity and righteousness reflects the characteristics that meet the needs of the patriarchal hierarchy in China. Thirdly, the exposition of individual's own physical and mental cultivation reflects that Confucianism emphasizes individual's moral cultivation and has the characteristics of attaching importance to people's spiritual realm. These thoughts undoubtedly provide rich theoretical resources for building a harmonious socialist society in China today. However, we can't inherit it completely, and we should stand in the perspective of developing advanced socialist culture, dialectically analyze it and discard it scientifically. For example, Confucian ecological ethics on the unity of man and nature; His benevolent thoughts on family virtues and interpersonal communication; His thoughts on the improvement of individual morality and the cultivation of personal accomplishment are of inestimable significance and role in building a harmonious socialist society today. Of course, as a feudal patriarchal ethical culture linked by blood, it serves the feudal hierarchy and is qualitatively different from the socialist society, so it has its own dross, which will inevitably not adapt to the economic, social and interpersonal relations under socialist conditions. Therefore, in the process of building a harmonious socialist society, it is our fundamental attitude towards Confucian harmonious ethics to adopt a realistic research method and combine inheritance with development and innovation.
Precautions:
[1] The Analects of Yang Huo.
[2] Xun's On Tian Zi.
[3], [4], [1 1], [14] Yan Yuan's Analects of Confucius.
[5] "Mencius Teng Wengong".
[6] and [9] Mencius and Li Lou.
[7] The Analects of Confucius Zi Han.
[8] "Mencius on the high posture".
[10] The Analects of Confucius.
[12] Mencius Li Lou.
[13] The Analects of Confucius.
[15] Mencius was single-minded.
[16] The Analects of Confucius is learned.
[17] The Analects of Confucius.
[18] Xunzi Confucianism.
References:
Jiao Guocheng's General Theory of Ethics in China (I), Shanxi Education Press, 1997.
Confucianism and Ecological Environment, by Zhang Yunfei, Sichuan People's Publishing House, 1995.
History of Confucian Academic Thought in China, edited by Zhao, Shandong Education Press, 1996.
Confucian Morality in Pre-Qin Period, Fu Hao, Guangxi Normal University Press, 1998.
A new probe into the value of Confucianism, edited by Chen Guanglin, Qilu Bookstore Press, 200 1 edition.
(The writer is a graduate student at Renmin University of China. His research interests include Marxist theory and ideological and political education. )