First, Keywords: ancient academy system reform

Second, thinking about the problem

1. Briefly describe the development track of academies in Song Dynasty.

2. Try to compare the similarities and differences between academies and official and private schools.

Third, reference books

Research on Chinese Academy System, edited by Chen Jiajia and Deng Hongbo, Zhejiang Education Press, 1997.

Academy is a unique cultural and educational model in China feudal society. As an educational system developed in parallel with official education in China's educational history, it sprouted in the late Tang Dynasty, flourished in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, spread in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, and was reconstructed in the late Qing Dynasty. It is a cultural and educational institution integrating education, study and book collection. It is a systematic synthesis.

On the basis of reforming the traditional public and private schools, a new education system is constructed, which is not official, but contains official elements, not private, but absorbs the advantages of private schools. It is the product of the combination of official education and private education. Since the appearance of academies, great changes have taken place in ancient education in China, that is, the pattern of parallel development of official schools, private schools and academies has emerged, and the three schools are dominant. Until the end of Qing Dynasty, they were mutually exclusive, but more infiltrated and merged with each other, which promoted the development and prosperity of ancient culture and education in China. Academies have existed in China for 1000 years, which has become a great spectacle in the history of culture and education in China.

(A) the trajectory of the development of ancient academies in China

1, the origin of the academy system

The name of the academy began in the Tang Dynasty, and it is divided into two categories: official and folk, but they are not educational institutions that convene disciples to give lectures. The former is like Jixian Temple Academy.

The place where books are edited, and the latter is the place where scholars read. After the "An Shi Rebellion" in the Tang Dynasty, the country turned from prosperity to decline, political corruption, depressed people's livelihood, and cultural and educational undertakings were also severely impacted, with official learning abandoned and etiquette declining. So some literati and scholars, inspired by Buddhist Zen forest, went to some quiet and beautiful places to study and study. Since then, the wind of seclusion in the mountains, self-cultivation and gathering disciples to give lectures has gradually started. Academies with the nature of gathering disciples to give lectures were basically formed at the end of the Five Dynasties, and it was not until the early years of the Northern Song Dynasty that they developed into a relatively complete academy system and became an important part of China's traditional education system.

2. The establishment of the academy system.

In the Song Dynasty, the country was reunified, social production was restored and developed, people's lives were relatively stable, and scholars began to learn. Because the ruler is very busy,

In order to meet the temporary needs in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China, the imperial examination only focused on the selection and absorption of existing talents. Therefore, in the nearly 100 years since the founding of the People's Republic of China, official studies have not received due attention. It is in this context that the academy has made great progress with its strong vitality and established its position as an important educational organization form. The development track of academy in Song Dynasty can be roughly divided into three stages:

1) After the rise of Song Liguo in the early Song Dynasty, it was temporarily impossible to give consideration to the revitalization of government schools, so the policy of "redemption" was adopted for private famous schools, and a joint venture between government and private schools appeared. The six famous academies in the early Song Dynasty are among them.

2) During the middle depression of Northern Song Dynasty, the official school flourished unprecedentedly; What's more, the practical rationality of reform has become the mainstream, and pure academic research has become increasingly depressed, so the academies are not well-known, and even the six famous academies have been squeezed out or turned into official schools.

3) The invasion, civil strife and corruption of imperial examinations by foreigners in Sheng Da in the Southern Song Dynasty made the official learning in the Southern Song Dynasty useless. In addition, due to Zhu and others' fruitful restoration of the academy and the popularity of Neo-Confucianism, the academy has become increasingly prosperous.

In Song Dynasty, academies generally formulated relatively complete rules and regulations, which is an important symbol of the institutionalization of academies. Zhu himself drafted these rules and regulations.

The revelation of Bailudong Academy has become a model of the learning law of the Academy.

3. Officialization of the academy system.

In order to ease the contradiction between Mongolian and Chinese nationalities and win the hearts of Han scholars, the rulers of Yuan Dynasty adopted the policy of protecting and advocating academies.

At the same time, it was gradually controlled, which made the academy of Yuan Dynasty increasingly official.

1) control the leadership of the academy.

In the middle and late Yuan Dynasty, mountain leaders or cave owners were appointed by the imperial court or local government, or sent officials. They were appointed by the imperial court and brought into the official system.

2) Control the extension right of university teachers.

The direct study and professors of Yuan Academy must be hired, approved or filed in the court by the Ritual Department, the Provincial Department or Xuanwei Department.

3) control the right to use university funds

The Yuan government controlled the funds by distributing funds and materials to the academy and sending people to supervise the use of the academy.

In addition, the Yuan government also strictly controls enrollment, examinations and the way out after graduation. The Yuan government took these measures.

History gradually lost the characteristics of free lectures, and eventually it was no different from official schools. Its academic characteristics, which depended on it and enjoyed a high reputation in the world, gradually faded away and eventually became a vassal of the imperial examination. However, the yuan government's extremely cautious and rational restraint attitude towards the transformation of academies deserves attention.

4. The rise and fall of the academy system.

The development of academies in Ming Dynasty "experienced a tortuous road from silence to prosperity and then to prohibition".

1) Silence in the Early Ming Dynasty

At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, because the government attached importance to the development of official learning and advocated the imperial examination to select scholars, official learning was very popular and the academy was neglected for nearly a hundred years.

2) Medium-term recovery

After the mid-Ming Dynasty, due to the lack of official knowledge and the corruption of imperial examinations, academy education was revived and reached its peak after Jiajing.

3) Late sinking

Due to the return of the academic characteristics of academy research, the political color of academy lectures is getting stronger and stronger, and the rulers feel "shocking the court" by satirizing current politics and judging figures. In the late Ming Dynasty, the authorities banned the destruction of academies four times, which seriously endangered the development of academic thought. In particular, the creation of "acupoint rules" gradually integrated the academy, official studies and imperial examinations.

5. The disappearance and reconstruction of the characteristics of the academy.

In the early Qing Dynasty, in order to suppress public opinion and eliminate the patriotic sentiment of Nanming, the rulers severely restricted the academy, but it was still banned. But at this time, the academy was no different from the official school. The official school tendency of the academy began in the Yuan Dynasty and reached its peak in the Qing Dynasty. The main content of academy learning in Qing Dynasty is eight-part essay art, which aims at taking part in imperial examinations and gaining fame, completely losing the original teaching style and the nature of academic research, and its independence and self-reliance.

There is not much subjectivity.

After the Opium War, the door of "China Power", which had been closed to the outside world for more than a hundred years, was finally broken by the western powers' "building a strong ship and benefiting from guns". In the westernization movement of "learning from foreigners to control foreigners", westernization schools have sprung up like mushrooms after rain, and reforming old-style academies has become the general trend. In this case, the Qing government finally adopted the suggestions of Zhang Zhidong and Liu Kunyi, and in the 27th year of Guangxu (190 1), the provincial capital academy was changed into a college, the government-run academy into a middle school, the state and county academies into a primary school, and more schools were set up. At this point, after nearly a thousand years of twists and turns, the academy system has finally merged into the torrent of modern school education.

(2) Evaluation of the ancient academy system in China.

1, formation mechanism

The appearance of the academy is by no means accidental. It is not only related to China's traditional thinking.

The origin of Hunan culture is closely related to the development of feudal economy and its unique political structure.

1) Ideological and cultural factors

Confucian culture is the core of feudal society in China, and Confucius initiated Confucianism. After the "exclusive respect for Confucianism" in the Han Dynasty, Confucianism became the official philosophy and ruling strategy. After the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism were three pillars. In order to resist Buddhism and Taoism and recreate the true spirit of Confucian education, Neo-Confucianism in the Song Dynasty will inevitably shoulder this heavy responsibility. Of course, Neo-Confucianism in Song Dynasty did not blindly exclude Buddhism and Taoism, but absorbed some thoughts of Buddhism and Taoism reasonably.

During the Southern Song Dynasty, due to foreign invasion, civil strife, imperial examination corruption and social unrest, people of insight took refuge in the countryside, set up academies and devoted themselves to studying knowledge, trying to recreate the free lecture style of Confucianism in the pre-Qin period, so as to resolve various social contradictions, correct social ills and revive the Chinese nation.

It is precisely because of the above factors that the academy was formed and prospered in the Song Dynasty. It is the product of the development of ancient private schools in China and the institutionalized stage of private schools, which has made historic contributions to the inheritance and dissemination of traditional culture and education in China.

2. Characteristics of running a school

Academy is a special form of teaching organization between private school and official school, which has the characteristics of "neither official nor private" and "both official and private". Specifically, its school-running characteristics can be summarized as follows:

1) Official recognition and help

Judging from the establishment of ancient academies, it is often related to plaques, classics or learning from emperors. All the six hospitals in the early Song Dynasty were like this.

2) Pay attention to book collection and reading.

In the Song Dynasty, "the academy was named as the library", and the purpose of collecting books was naturally to read.

3) Free lectures and academic discussions.

Song and Ming academies inherited the tradition of free lectures in private schools, each with its own characteristics, and took the dissemination of academic ideas as its own responsibility. The popularity of Neo-Confucianism in Song Dynasty was closely related to the pursuit of giving lectures and discussing academics in academies.

4) Stick to Confucianism and compete with Buddhism and Taoism.

Academy is one of the compatible products of the "three religions" struggle, which can prove that the establishment of academy is only the beginning of the decline of Buddhism and Taoism. Most of the academies are located in famous mountains and rivers with beautiful scenery, which is not unrelated to the struggle and influence between Buddhism and Taoism.

3. Teaching methods

1) Speech and debate

China Academy of Sciences attaches great importance to holding academic lectures in the form of "promotion"

Classroom lectures ","academic lectures "and so on. In addition to expounding their own academic opinions, academy masters also attach great importance to the debate and exchange of different academic opinions. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Gu Xiancheng and Gao Panlong specially formulated a lecture system in academies, including "annual general meeting" and "monthly short meeting", which stipulated "convention" and "rules", discussed morality and cherished academics.

2) Self-study is difficult

In addition to academic lectures, another important feature of academy teaching is to pay attention to students' self-study and questioning. The college has a rich collection of books, which provides convenience for students to study freely and independently. Zhu believes that in addition to collective teaching, the duty of university teachers is to guide students to teach themselves, emphasizing that reading must be suspicious, and those who have doubts but have not thought deeply should be masters for advice. This is called "questioning and asking difficult questions". Zhu created six reading rules (step by step, read carefully, swim modestly, observe yourself carefully, work hard,

Have a far-reaching impact on future generations.

3) Research and discussion

Learning is based on academic inquiry and rational training. Whether it is a master lecture or a student self-study, it obviously embodies the research spirit of paying attention to academic discussion. As the spiritual home of intellectuals, academies strive to combine academic research with educational activities. On the one hand, they deepen academic discussion and promote teaching activities through academic research; On the other hand, it cultivates talents through teaching and academic research, and expands the influence of the school. It was this kind of interaction and progress that greatly promoted the development of China's feudal social thought and scholarship.

4. Organization and management

In terms of organization and management, academies are also different from ordinary schools:

1) Streamline the management organization

Like private schools, colleges have only one clear owner. Its names include cave owner, mountain owner, hall owner, dean and so on. The host is often a master of the school. Giving lectures and solving problems are the main responsibilities, but the management is actually the leader. Although some large-scale colleges have added assistant lecturers, inspectors and judges, the number of full-time staff is extremely limited and is often divided up by college students in turn. Compared with official schools, there are very few redundant staff in the academy, which has the characteristics of absorbing students to participate in management, or it is called "high-footed disciple control"

2) democratization of management principles

Like ordinary private schools, university teachers and students can go in and out freely with less arbitrary punishment. Most of the presenters in colleges and universities are publicly recommended, not official committees. Some colleges expressly stipulate. The host is "incompetent, it will be easier", and it is stipulated that "it will be easier every season", and life tenure is not allowed.

3) Management mode specification.

Because there are few administrators in the college and teachers and students get along with each other day and night, it is necessary to formulate a set of academic rules of self-discipline and self-education. The learning rules of the academy generally include three basic contents: one is to indicate the direction of learning; The second is the principles and methods of learning, self-cultivation and treating others; The third is to stipulate the penalties that have been implemented.

The most famous academic rules are Zhu's Bailudong Academy Rules and Li Ze Academy Rules.

(3) Comparative analysis of academy, official school and private school.

Because the academy has the characteristics of "non-official and non-private" and "both official and private", it is different from official learning. Compared with private schools, it is also different.

1, compared with official schools

Compared with official schools, academies are more than official schools in the following aspects.

There are differences:

1) From the teacher's point of view, the teachers of official schools are all appointed by the imperial court and belong to feudal officials; The teachers of the academy are recommended by the local government, mostly scholars and scholars with both ability and political integrity. Although some of them are court officials, they are only part-time teachers.

2) From the students' point of view, most government students are bureaucrats' children, and they can enter the school only if they have strong grades and strict examinations; College students come and go freely, regardless of rank and rank, and they don't need any exams to enter the school.

3) From the educational content, the content of government professors is mostly textbooks approved by the imperial court, and the content is relatively fixed and single; The teaching content of the academy depends on the characteristics and length of the academy, and the director of the lecturer, the general lecturer or the teaching content of the lecturer depends on the knowledge taught by the academy and the mainstream of the academic, so the teaching content is more flexible and broad.

4) From the perspective of teaching organization, the teaching of official studies is dull and monotonous; University teaching is flexible and diverse. In particular, the "lecture" system of the academy has become an important teaching form of the academy, which is also an important symbol that the academy is different from the official school.

2. Comparison with private schools

Since its birth, the academy has a natural connection with private schools, and their common points are as follows: first, like private schools, it was founded by private funds, unofficial and independent; Second, academies, like private schools, face the lower classes and the countryside; Third, academies, like private schools, aim at educating ordinary children. Fourth, the academy, like a private school, is mainly a kind of quality education, and the purpose of running a school is not to pursue official career through the imperial examination.

On these fundamental issues, academies and private schools are inextricably linked. In a sense, colleges

It was born out of a private school, but the academy is not an ordinary private school. This is not a direct transfer of private school experience, but a profound change in private school, which is another new education system independent of the two major education systems of official school and private school.

As mentioned above, as a general private school, it is basically in a spontaneous state and has not yet formed a set of long-term stable and complete educational rules, which are as follows: First, there are no fixed school buildings and educational facilities; Second, there is no fixed source of income; Third, there is no special library, let alone the conditions for printing books and handouts; Fourth, there is no corresponding teaching plan and rules and regulations; Fifth, it is a handicraft-style way of running schools, and it is impossible to teach in classes like official schools; Sixth, there is no assessment system in any form, and there is a lack of a strong education management system. The school is in an unorganized and loose state. On the other hand, the college stood at that time.

From a historical point of view, the government and private schools are comprehensively investigated, and then the two educational systems are integrated and reformed, thus forming a unique non-private and non-official educational organization form.

Academies are different from ordinary private schools:

1) The college has both fixed school buildings and teaching facilities, and a special library, which is not only magnificent, but also extremely rich in books, which is difficult for ordinary private schools to achieve.

2) The academy has a fixed education fund as a guarantee, and established a field-centered education fund system similar to that of official schools. There are two channels for the academy to obtain research fields: one is private donation, and the other is government funding. This is an important prerequisite for the survival and development of the academy, and it is also not available in general private schools.

3) The Academy has its own complete management system, and has set up staffing and posts similar to those of official schools. Everyone according to their own

Job responsibilities, responsible for students' teaching, assessment, life and college funds, sacrifice, safety, etc. It is particularly worth mentioning that college students also participate in management, such as principals, seniors and seniors, who directly manage students' study and life.

In addition, the academy has also formulated a series of unique and distinctive doctrines, learning rules, learning training and so on. To raise a series of experiences gained from management practice to a certain theoretical level is an important symbol of the institutionalization of the hospital.

To sum up, although the academy has a natural connection with private schools, it is different from private schools; It is not only qualitatively different from official learning, but also absorbs many positive factors in official learning and has certain connection with official learning. It is on the basis of widely absorbing the beneficial experience of private schools and government schools that a relatively independent education system has been formed after the successful transformation of the academy, that is, China students.

The ancient society with close life and development has been an important and special educational organization form for thousands of years. Its extremely important role in education has always been beyond the reach of official schools and general private schools, and they are irreplaceable.

(d) Comparison between European colleges and medieval universities

While the Chinese academy system in the ancient oriental countries is maturing and prospering, a new educational institution-modern university has emerged in the distant western world. As far as its characteristics are concerned, the medieval universities in Europe have similarities with the ancient academies in China, but they are obviously different from the academies in history. Therefore, the author will make a comparative analysis of the two from the cultural level. In the most general sense, culture refers to everything that distinguishes human society from the natural state, which can usually be divided into three levels: object culture, system culture and concept culture. As far as the relationship between culture and universities is concerned, it is mainly influenced by institutional culture and conceptual culture.

The influence and restriction of.

1, institutional culture

From the perspective of institutional culture, there are great differences in political system and religious power between ancient China and medieval Europe.

1) political system

In ancient China, a central ruling regime was established from the Qin Dynasty, and its political system has always been highly centralized. Consistent with the centralization of the central feudal system, it has become a necessary condition for the continuation of the academy. When the free research and argumentation of the academy does not violate the interests of the ruling stage and shake its political order, or when the central government is unable to take into account the deviant behavior of the academy, the academy will show its true colors. Once the liberalization degree of the academy exceeded the tolerance limit of the feudal dynasty, the only thing waiting for the academy was to be banned or succumb to power.

The road to official learning. The political situation in medieval Europe was different from that in China at the same time. At that time, Europe was probably more similar to the separatist regime in China during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The coexistence of multi-ethnic countries and secular regimes gave universities academic freedom and autonomy in running schools. Historically, medieval universities in Europe were less interfered by secular regimes, but academies in China were rarely so lucky.

2) Religious forces

China's culture prides itself on secularism. Taoism, which evolved from Taoism in China's traditional culture, is at best a quasi-religion, and foreign Buddhism has not yet developed to compete with imperial power. Secular authority has always been in the supreme position. This has both advantages and disadvantages for the existence and development of academies. The former is manifested in the connection between the teaching research of the academy and social politics, which is conducive to eliminating social disadvantages and promoting social progress. The latter is mainly manifested as follows

Nowadays, due to the lack of religious and cultural vocation, it is difficult for the academy to resist the temptation of secular utilitarianism, thus embarking on the old road of learning and being an official, which will inevitably affect the academic scope, quality and depth of the academy.

In medieval Europe, religion was powerful, and its influence on universities was far greater than that of secular regimes. This influence has both advantages and disadvantages, which makes the teaching content of medieval universities full of obscurantism. However, in order to demonstrate the rationality of the doctrine, religion advocates extensive knowledge of various disciplines, especially natural sciences, and at the same time cultivates people's professional interest in concentrated research and exercises the rigor of people's thinking, thus accumulating profound intellectual resources for the development of science and culture.

2. Conceptual culture

From the perspective of conceptual culture, the differences between Chinese and western cultures are even greater. From two aspects: cultural orientation and academic autonomy,

Compare and analyze colleges and universities.

1) cultural orientation

The problem of cultural orientation is very obvious in Chinese and western teaching thoughts, and there are two different cultural values. In the west, subjectivism can be said to be a main thread running through the history of western teaching values, with a long history and a long-term dominant position. In China, moral standards and extreme pragmatism are highly respected. Natural science knowledge has long been rejected by orthodox education. It only serves politics, regards learning as an upward step, and seeking an official has become the only purpose of learning. Chinese academy system, as an important part of feudal education system in recent 1000 years, pays attention to ethical education as the value orientation of decisive factor in life, thus limiting the development of empirical science. Confucianism advocates introspection rather than exploring the mysteries of the universe, which is reflected in the content of education.

Educational content is divorced from natural scientific knowledge and excludes scientific knowledge. Although Chinese academies pay attention to the academic research of a hundred schools of thought contend, the owners of the academies are the same on the fundamental issue of maintaining patriarchal feudal society. Although it has existed for nearly a thousand years, it has only changed in form and quantity, but has not changed in essence. The backwardness in middle and modern times is related to the cultural tradition of attaching importance to morality and neglecting wisdom.

The rise of universities in the Middle Ages was the initial cultural expression of social prosperity in Western Europe. China Century University not only provided a stage for scholars in various fields at that time, but also became a garden for cultivating a new generation of scholars. Scholars not only shoulder the responsibility of preserving and inheriting culture, but also shoulder the bounden duty of developing and creating culture. Although they did not break through the control of the feudal church, they were right to pay attention to the cultivation of rational thinking ability and the transmission of scientific and cultural knowledge under the impetus of the times.

The major breakthrough in science and technology objectively laid a good foundation for promoting the rise of modern western scientific and technological revolution.

2) Academic autonomy

Academic autonomy means that academics should not be embraced by politics, only obey the standard of truth and not be subjected to external pressure.

In the feudal society of China, politics and religion were integrated, and education must be dominated by political power. The same is true of ancient academies in China. An independent education system has never been formed, and academic autonomy is lacking. Due to the control of the government and the temptation of rich profits, the academy lost its fame and fortune and devoted itself to academic research, aiming at self-cultivation and not serving the original intention of the imperial examination. Finally, it gradually became a vassal of the imperial examination. During the modern revolution in Europe, all countries benefited a lot from scientific and technological achievements, while young scholars in China crawled on the loess road for years, trying to write an eight-part essay and stand up for the saints in the examination room. Positive reasons

Due to the lack of academic autonomy, in the historical process of nearly a thousand years, the academy has risen and fallen with the feudal social politics, floating and sinking.

With the decline of economy and culture, the academy system and its excellent tradition were buried by feudal society.

In the Middle Ages, universities enjoyed a high degree of autonomy, which enabled them to reject all kinds of external interference, won certain "privileges" for independent survival and free research, and created extremely favorable objective conditions for scientific research and academic prosperity. Academic autonomy enabled medieval universities to cultivate a large number of outstanding scholars for the society and played a very important role in promoting the process of western culture. Universities not only become the soul of the nation, but also the cultural source of human civilization. In a sense, it is precisely because of the emergence and development of universities that western culture has been continuously accumulated, melted, updated and sublimated in the historical process, and the construction of modern western civilization is open.

Knowledge system. It is also in this process that the western university system has been constantly improved, so it can cope with new cultural challenges calmly and freely for a long time.

It can be seen that the same time, the same institution, but because of different cultural backgrounds, has different historical destiny, which is worth pondering and appreciating.