(A) Behaviorist learning theory
Behaviorism is the schools of psychology founded by American psychologist Watson in the 1920s. Its basic views are: education is to shape people's behavior according to certain goals; Learning is to strengthen the connection between stimulus and response. The formula is: S→R (stimulus → response). There is no intermediary between stimulus and response, but a direct connection.
Skinner, an American economist of new behavioral psychology in the 1940s and 1950s, had the greatest influence on behaviorism research. The main points are as follows:
(1) Education is "shaping people's behavior".
(2) Theory of operating conditions. Through experiments, he found a spontaneous reflex which is not directly related to known stimuli and can be triggered by operable actions (rather than reactive conditioned reflex directly triggered by known stimuli), thus finding an operable and controllable mechanism for human learning.
(3) Reinforcement theory of reaction probability. Learning is the change of response probability (accuracy-firmness-speed) caused by stimulation, and reinforcement is the means to enhance this response probability.
(4) Procedural teaching method. He applied the theory of operant conditioning to create a "teaching machine" and advocated the program teaching of "small step presentation, positive response, timely feedback, self-paced and improved effect", which triggered the program teaching movement in the 1960s.
The first attempt of the first generation of instructional design (ID 1) began with program teaching based on behavior-oriented learning theory. At first, it was the design of teaching machines and individual media. Later, it gradually expanded to various media and even the whole teaching process and the design of educational projects. Since 1970s, it has been widely used to guide the instructional design of computer-aided instruction. It can be said that behaviorism learning theory occupied a dominant position in the teaching design in the 1960s and 1970s.
The theoretical guidance of behaviorism learning theory to ID 1 is mainly realized by emphasizing the principle of external objective stimulus. It regards the teacher's "teaching" as an objective stimulus and puts it in the position of "S" in S→R, while the learner accepts the stimulus and reacts passively in the position of "R". Based on this, ID 1 puts teachers' "teaching" at the center of teaching design, while learners are in the position of being taught and controlled.
Because behaviorism learning theory adapts to the needs of traditional teaching methods and has obvious application effects in the teaching of motor skills such as listening, speaking, reading, writing, drawing, calculating, walking and doing, ID 1 under the guidance of behaviorism learning theory is still full of vitality in the teaching of some motor skills where traditional teaching methods prevail today. However, due to the inherent mechanical, passive and inefficient nature of behaviorism learning theory, it is difficult to learn complex things; In particular, its neglect of learners and their learning enthusiasm and initiative directly runs counter to the development of science, technology and education. Therefore, cognitive learning theory and the second generation instructional design (ID2) under its guidance have developed rapidly.
(B) Cognitive learning theory and ID2
According to the theory of cognitive learning, learning is not directly and mechanically linked by S→R, but is realized by learners' subjective initiative. On the basis of adhering to this basic view, cognitive learning theory is divided into different schools, such as gestalt, contact-cognition, constructivism and so on. Among them, the Connectivity-Cognitive School, which was born in 1970s and represented by American psychologist Gagne, was recognized by more teachers and learners because it combined the advantages of behaviorism "Connectivity" learning theory and cognitive learning theory, and became the representative school of cognitive learning theory in 1970s and 1990s. The main points are as follows:
Learning is to change behavior. Whether learning takes place can be inferred by the change of behavior performance, and the learning goal can be described by accurate behavior terms. This provides a theoretical basis for the design of ID2 to check the learning effect and obtain feedback information through practice, questioning, observation and testing, and also provides a method for the description of learning objectives.
2. Learning is inseparable from internal and external conditions. People's learning is inseparable from external stimuli, but people have cognitive functions. When studying, he always uses this function to actively seek external stimuli and enter the internal cognitive process to achieve certain goals. Therefore, learning should not only pay attention to the stimulating effect of external things, but also pay attention to the intermediary role of learners' internal mechanisms. The learning formula is not S→R but S-O-R ("O" stands for the internal state of the organism). This view provides a theoretical basis for ID2' s design principle of "scientifically arranging the external conditions of teaching and promoting the occurrence of learners' internal cognitive process".
3. Cognitive factors are structured. People's various cognitive factors, such as knowledge, strategy, perception, memory, reaction, etc. , not isolated from each other, but an interactive and organically connected complete structure, that is, cognitive structure. Learning is a process of expanding the original cognitive structure or forming a new cognitive structure through internal cognitive activities on the basis of the original cognitive structure. This continuous formation and development of cognitive structure plays a decisive role in learners' behavior and current cognitive activities. This view deepens the analysis of learners' characteristics in ID2, from the analysis of knowledge quantity and level to the analysis of cognitive structure and cognitive ability, and makes the determination of teaching content, teaching starting point and teaching strategy based on more scientific theory.
The human brain is like a computer. Learning, that is, cognitive process, is a process in which the human brain processes and processes information. Gagne believes that the cognitive process is an internal process in which the human brain inputs, processes, stores, extracts, uses and creates information from the external environment according to certain purposes and strategies. This process and its structure cannot be directly observed, but we can study cognitive representation (the way information is presented in people's minds) through computer simulation, so as to understand the cognitive psychological process of learners during learning. The analysis of learning level, cognitive process and teaching strategy in ID2 is mainly based on Gagne's information processing theory.
Compared with behaviorism learning theory and its supporting ID 1, relevance cognitive learning theory has a fundamental difference and development in the understanding of learners' subjective initiative, the analysis of learners' characteristics and the design of teaching strategies. However, due to the complexity and secrecy of cognitive psychology research, it is difficult for learners to exert their internal factors and there is no fundamental breakthrough so far. The position and function of "O" in formula S-O-R is actually subordinate to "S", ID2 is still objective (learning mainly depends on the stimulation of external objective things), and "teaching" is still in the central position. However, the teaching design centered on "teaching" can no longer fully meet the needs of social education, teaching reform and the development of modern educational technology. Therefore, the constructivism learning theory and the third generation instructional design (ID3) under its guidance came into being.
(C) Constructivism learning theory and ID3
Constructivism is a philosophical methodology developed from structuralism, which mainly studies whether things have structure, where the structure comes from and how to construct it. After the 1990s, structuralism was applied to the field of education, which triggered a revolution in educational psychology, and the constructivist learning theory of cognitive school developed rapidly. (8) The theory holds that "learning is the process of constructing internal psychological representation, and learning is not to transfer external knowledge to memory, but to establish new knowledge through interaction with the outside world on the basis of existing experience". At present, the constructivist learning view emphasizes the role of specific situations in meaning construction. The main points are as follows:
1. Learning is a learner-centered positive meaning construction process. Learning is not the intensive stimulation of external objective things to learners, nor is it the knowledge imparted and instilled by teachers to learners, but the process of meaning construction by learners in the interaction with the external environment. In the process of learning, learners are active in the central position, actively interacting with the situation (social and cultural background), actively getting guidance and help from teachers and partners, actively choosing learning resources and learning methods, actively paying attention to and selectively sensing external information according to their previous cognitive structure, and constructing the meaning of current things. The guiding significance of this view to ID3 is mainly manifested in:
(1) established ID3' s "learning"-centered essence, which made the teaching design always focus on learners, and the learners had enthusiasm and initiative;
(2) Giving teachers a new connotation of "teaching"-helping, guiding and promoting learners to construct meaning;
(3) Take meaning construction as the ultimate goal of learning.
2. The process of meaning construction by learners is two-way. When the structure of the current thing is consistent with the learner's original cognitive structure, the relevant experience in the original cognitive structure will be assimilated with the current thing, and the meaning of the current thing will be constructed, so that the original cognitive structure will be expanded; When they are inconsistent and cannot be assimilated, an adaptation process will occur, and the original cognitive structure will be reconstructed (reformed or reorganized). The design principle of designing knowledge structure according to learners' cognitive structure emphasized in ID3 is based on this view. At the same time, this view also points out that learners' cognitive structure is constructed in cognitive activities, so ID3 must pay attention to the design of learners' cognitive construction process.
3. Learners' construction of the meaning of things is diversified. People always construct the meaning of things according to their own understanding, but things are complex, diverse and dynamic in time and space, and learners' perception, personal feelings and cognitive structure of things are special. Therefore, even the same thing, each learner may construct different meanings. This view requires ID3 to pay attention to designing various cooperative learning methods, so that learners can be more exposed to different viewpoints, communicate with each other, learn from each other's strong points and improve together. This is especially important for the instructional design of personalized learning and distance learning.
4. Learning should be in real situations. The purpose of learning is to really apply what you have learned and solve practical problems in the real world. The more realistic the learner's situation, the more realistic the problem to be solved, the higher the learner's learning enthusiasm, initiative and freedom, and the more vivid and effective the learning process. This view is the theoretical basis of ID3' s emphasis on design requirements, such as "the design of learning activities should be related to learning tasks" and "the design of auxiliary learning environment should be similar to the real physical environment with similar complexity".
Compared with behaviorism and contact cognitive learning theory, constructivist learning theory is a major change and development in essence. It transcends objectivism epistemology, promotes learners' cognitive function to a key position, sets up a constructive view of structuralism epistemology, and advances ID 1 and ID2 centered on "teaching" to ID3 centered on "learning". Constructivism learning theory and ID3 under its guidance have adapted to the current direction of social education and teaching reform, and have been supported and guaranteed by the development of modern educational technology, which has exerted great influence at home and abroad. But it should be noted that they are still immature in some aspects. For example, constructivist learning theory regards learners' meaning construction as the ultimate goal of the whole learning process; ID3 replaces "teaching goal" with "meaning construction", and so on. These views are biased and need to be studied.
Behaviorism, Cognition and Constructivism —— Three Basic Learning Theories
Instructional design involves three learning theories, behaviorism learning theory, cognitivism learning theory and constructivism learning theory. The corresponding instructional design has also gone through the stages of behaviorism instructional design, cognitivism instructional design and constructivism instructional design.
1. behaviorism: Based on observable behavior changes, behaviorism focuses on the repetition of a certain behavior until it becomes automatic and unconscious.
2. Cognition: Based on the thinking process behind the behavior, the behavior we observe can be used to analyze the inner changes of learners.
3. Constructivism: Based on the assumption that everyone constructs his own world view according to his own experience and plan, constructivism focuses on learners solving problems in specific situations.
① the theoretical basis of behaviorism
As a learning theory, behaviorism can be traced back to Aristotle's time. Aristotle put forward association in an article called Memories, and other philosophers also followed his thoughts. Behaviorist learning theory focuses on obvious behaviors that can be observed and measured. It regards thinking as a black box, and the brain's response to stimulation can be quantitatively observed. Behaviorism completely ignores the study of human brain thinking process. The key figures in the development of behaviorism are Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike Horndike and Skinner.
Pavlov: A famous biologist in the former Soviet Union, famous for his classical conditioned reflex theory. His famous experiments were carried out with food, dogs and bells.
Thorndike: He tried to solve the education problem with precision science. What exists exists in measurable quantities. His theory (connectionism theory) holds that learning is composed of the connection of stimulus and response.
Watson: Watson's experiment is a child and a white cat. When a child touches a cat, it will suddenly make a sound, so the child is afraid of cats (not before). Watson's experiments show that the role of conditions in emotional responses to certain stimuli can explain the formation of people's fears and prejudices.
Skinner: His theory focuses on the change of visible behavior and ignores the change process of people's thoughts. In his book Science and Human Behavior, the theory of operant conditioning acts on the principles of law, religion, education and economy. Skinner's work is different from that of his predecessors who studied classical conditioned reflex theory. He studies the theory of operant conditioning.
② The theoretical basis of cognitivism:
As early as the 1920s, people discovered the limitations of behaviorism. Tolman found that rats used cognitive maps to walk mazes in experiments. When a part of the maze was closed, the mouse didn't seem to panic, as if it knew that the closed part was originally impassable. Visually, the mouse can't see that this road is impassable, but it still chooses to take a longer route, knowing that this will be the way out.
Behaviorism theory cannot explain some social behaviors. Children don't imitate every reinforced behavior. For example, they imitate some behaviors they observed for the first time, although these behaviors are not reinforced. When Bandura and Walters observed these phenomena, they rejected the traditional operant conditioning theory (thinking that children should respond before learning-reinforcement). In their book Social Learning and Personal Development, they expounded that individuals can imitate the behaviors observed by others, which was later developed into a social cognitive theory through Bandura's efforts.
Cognitivism recognizes the importance of reinforcement, but tends to acquire and reorganize people's cognitive structure in the process of information processing.
Cognitive psychology can be traced back to ancient Greece, Plato and Aristotle. 1950 there was a cognitive revolution in the United States, in which jean piaget had a great influence.
Constructivism foundation:
Constructivism learning theory is an important branch of cognitive learning theory, which is divided into realistic constructivism and radical constructivism. Different from behaviorism learning theory, which emphasizes stimulus-response and regards learners as passive responses to external stimuli, that is, as the object of knowledge infusion, constructivism learning theory emphasizes the internal psychological process of cognitive subjects and regards learners as the subject of information processing.
The basic content of constructivism learning theory includes "the meaning of learning" and "the method of learning". Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge. On the meaning of learning, constructivism holds that knowledge is not acquired by teachers, but by learners with the help of others (teachers and classmates) and necessary learning materials (words, images, objects, CAI, network, etc.). ) in a certain situation, that is, under the social and cultural background.
3. The history of three learning theories in instructional design.
1. behaviorism and instructional design
The influence of behaviorism on teaching design is reflected in the emergence of teaching machines, procedural teaching ideas and personalized teaching methods. CAI teaching design in modern society has also inherited behaviorism to a certain extent.
2. Cognitive theory and instructional design
Advance organizer, memory assistance and the strategy of organizing teaching content from shallow to deep are all influenced by cognitive theory. The teaching design under the influence of cognitivism should follow the following principles: taking the use and formation of students' good cognitive structure as the value orientation and goal orientation, paying attention to the design principle of environment, taking the design of teaching content as the principle of systematization, structure and integration, and embodying the principles of students' subjectivity and autonomy everywhere in the design.
3. Constructivism and instructional design
Constructivism holds that the world exists objectively, but the understanding and meaning of the world is decided by everyone. We build reality according to our own experience, or at least explain it. Our personal world is always created by our own brains. Because our experience and belief in experience are different, our understanding of the outside world is also different, so constructivism is more concerned with how to build knowledge on the basis of original experience, psychological structure and belief.
Constructivism holds that learning is the process of constructing internal psychological representation. Learners do not transfer external knowledge to memory, but a process of acquiring and constructing new knowledge through interaction with the outside world on the basis of existing experience.
Constructivism is inconsistent with modern instructional design system, which is embodied in the following aspects: in constructivism theory, learners construct their own knowledge, so how can instructional designers decide their own learning results? The learning tools and learning results advocated by constructivism are not easy to measure, and different learners need different tools and learning results. This inconsistency has led to disputes among instructional design experts. The core issue is whether constructivism and instructional design can coexist.
One view is that constructivism and instructional design theory are completely incompatible. They believe that teaching design is based on objectivism and should pursue an obvious and controllable learning effect. However, the non-objectivism position of constructivism is fundamentally opposite to this point. It emphasizes that the learning effect is self-constructed and unpredictable, so the theory of instructional design cannot be introduced. Another view is that constructivism is suitable for instructional design in some complex learning fields and advanced learning goals, and it can be introduced into instructional design fields in the form of a "new psychological stereotype", which can make up for the limitations of traditional instructional design in excessively separating and simplifying teaching content (Reigeluth, Wilson, Jonasson).
According to constructivist learning theory, learning environment includes four elements: situation, cooperation, dialogue and meaning construction. Meaningful knowledge construction can take place in the following learning environments:
1. Express the real world in various ways to avoid expressing the complex real world too simply.
2. Providing credible jobs-integrating into the environment.
3. Provide a case-based learning environment in the real world, instead of deciding the teaching order in advance.
4. Cultivate meditation practice.
5. Enable knowledge construction based on scenarios and content.
6. Support collaborative knowledge construction through negotiation.
Fourthly, the practice of learning theory and instructional design.
Teaching design can be summarized as three activities: teaching analysis activity, teaching decision-making activity and teaching design result evaluation activity. Among them, analysis is the basis and premise of decision-making and evaluation. Analytical activities are usually guided by atomism, that is, identifying and decomposing the components of things and their relationships. The function of instructional design is to guide practice and apply theory, not just pure theory. Trying to connect instructional design with theory is just like connecting schools with the real world. What we learn in the school environment does not always meet our social needs, just as theory is not always applied to practice. From a practical point of view, the job of instructional designers is to find out which factors are effective and how to use them.
Behaviorism Theory, Cognitive Theory and Constructivism Theory —— How do we relate them to instructional design? First of all, we should not abandon the system method, but must make adjustments according to the design needs. We must agree to determine which learning method is the most suitable according to the learning environment. There is no absolute advantage or disadvantage in learning methods. Some learning problems need to be explained, and some are suitable for students to control the learning environment.
Behaviorism method is very effective when students master professional knowledge, that is, the teaching content of "what to know" Cognitive strategies are very useful in problem-solving strategies that need to define facts and rules. (Know how to do it). Constructivism strategy is especially suitable for solving unclear problems through reflection in activities.