Before the October Revolution in Russia, the industry was very underdeveloped, accounting for only 1/3 of the total industrial and agricultural output value, and the industrial sector structure was dominated by light industry, accounting for about 2/3 of the total industrial output value. Russian industry, which was already very backward, was on the verge of collapse after the First World War and the October Revolution because foreign armed forces intervened in the civil war. After the end of the civil war, on the basis of the recovery of the national economy, the Soviet Union adopted a resolution to realize the socialist industrialization of the country. The resolution clearly stipulates that the basis of the general route of industrialization is to start from heavy industry. Starting from the development of the core of heavy industry, that is, the machine manufacturing industry, this is actually focusing on Class A industries, that is, the production of means of production. [ 1]

Under the influence of this policy, after decades of development, Russia, as one of the countries joined by the Soviet Union, has a complete industrial system. It is divided into eight industrial sectors: fuel power industry; Metallurgical industry; Chemical and petrochemical industries; Machine building and metalworking industries; Building materials industry; Forest, wood processing and pulp and paper industry; Light industry; Food industry. [2]

Industry plays an important role in Russian economy. The characteristics of Russian industry are: the development of heavy industry is always given priority, and at the same time, with the development of social division of labor and the progress of science and technology, many new industrial departments gradually appear. Industrial production is highly concentrated, which is the result of Russia's productivity distribution policy. In industrial production, Russia divides the industrial sector into several complexes for planning and organizing development. These complexes are: fuel power complex, metallurgical complex, machinery manufacturing complex, chemical forest product complex, building complex, social complex and eastern regional production complex. [3]

After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the privatization process of Russian state-owned enterprises was divided into two stages: the first stage was1autumn 1992 to1June 1994, and the second stage was1July 1994. In these two stages, Russia's industrial development has also undergone major changes. The first stage of privatization completely broke the traditional planned system economically, taking state-owned enterprises as a breakthrough, and began a large-scale market economy transformation through privatization. Free privatization is implemented at this stage. Foreign investors can participate in auctions, auctions and investment bids, as well as purchase privatized securities. By the end of June 1994, 70% of industrial enterprises, including 20,000 large and medium-sized enterprises, had been converted into shares; The proportion of small-scale privatization reached 75%; The sideline production value of privatized enterprises and individuals in agriculture reached 86%; The non-state-owned economy has accounted for half of GDP, and the number of employed people has reached 40 million. The second phase of privatization plan started from 1 July 9941day. The characteristics of privatization at this stage are from free privatization to paid privatization, from pursuing political goals to paying attention to economic benefits and stimulating production investment. [4]

Two. Major industrial sectors

1. Fuel power industry

The fuel power industry is a powerful industrial sector based on Russia's own resources. Russia's reserves of coal, oil, natural gas, peat and uranium are among the highest in the world. Fuel power industry is one of the basic sectors of Russian national economy, including power industry and fuel industry.

Russian electric power industry consists of three systems: thermal power station, hydropower station and atomic power station. Since the 1990s, the number of enterprises in the power industry has increased, and the power generation has decreased year by year. The ratio of the power generation of atomic power stations to the total power generation has been kept between 1 1% and 12%. The power generation ratio of thermal power stations is decreasing, while that of hydropower stations is increasing. In the industrial sector, the power industry has a higher profit.

Russian fuel industry is divided into petroleum industry, natural gas industry and coal industry.

(1) Petroleum industry

The focus of oil exploitation in the Soviet Union shifted from the west to the east. After World War II, it moved from Baku oil field in Azerbaijan to Volga-Ural region. In 1970s, it moved eastward to Tyumen region of western Siberia, where there is the largest Samotolol oil field in Russia and one of the best oil fields in the world. The oil production in Tyumen region accounts for 66% of Russia's total oil production.

Rosneft (роснет) was established in September. 1995. It is a state-controlled oil company, formerly known as the Soviet Ministry of Oil and Russian Oil and Gas Company. The company has 1996 oil reserves14.83 million tons, oil output130,000 tons and oil processing capacity of 4.5 million tons. 1995 has 69,880 employees. The board of directors of the company consists of president, chairman, national ministries, subsidiaries and local chief executives *** 12. Rosneft owns 8 oil production companies, 9 refineries, 12 oil sales company and other companies. 12 subsidiaries are: (1) Arkhangelsk Geological Company (архангескгеолд). . Poole Oil and Gas Company. (7) stavropol Oil and Gas Company. Krasnodar Oil and Gas Company. Levies Kalem Oil Company. ⑽ Dagestan Oil Company. ⑾ Sakhalin Offshore Oil and Gas Company. ⑿ Tuapush Refinery. In addition, Rosneft also has some foreign cooperation institutions, including the Central Geophysical Exploration Company and the Oil and Gas Computing Center. The business scope covers the survey, exploration, development, transportation and processing of oil, natural gas and other mineral deposits; Production of petroleum products, petrochemical products and other products; Sales of petroleum, petroleum products and other products; Investment activities (including securities business); Foreign trade and economic cooperation, import and export business; Complete orders from consumers in federal countries and regions. [5]

East Siberian Oil and Gas Company (востсибнетегаз) was established in April/1994, and its business scope is geophysical exploration. The board of directors of the company consists of nine members, including the chairman, national ministries, local administrative officials and representatives of subsidiaries. The East Siberian Oil and Gas Company has three subsidiaries: Yenisei River Geophysical Company, located in Yenisesk; Yenisei Oil and Gas Geological Company in Krasnoyarsk; Eastern Siberia Oil and Gas Marketing Company. [6]

(2) Natural gas industry

Russia has 17 natural gas exploitation areas. Tyumen is the largest natural gas exploitation area in Russia, accounting for 92% of the total natural gas exploitation. The natural gas industry is relatively stable. Natural gas reserves are concentrated in orenburg gas field in Urals and five gas fields in West Siberia, namely Maliangoi, Yanbao, Zapoliyar and Medvedere. The natural gas exploitation industry is highly concentrated, and 85% of the exploitation amount is carried out by three large enterprises, and their annual exploitation amount is above 50 billion cubic meters.

Gazprom (газпром) was established on the basis of the Ministry of Natural Gas Industry of the Soviet Union after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. It is the largest natural gas producer in Russia and the largest natural gas company in the world. There are 2 enterprises with an annual output of 10 billion to 50 billion cubic meters, 7 enterprises with an annual output of 10 billion cubic meters, and 6 small enterprises with an annual output of 10 billion cubic meters. Gazprom's natural gas supply to China has accounted for more than half of Russia's total energy supply. It exports about 654.38+02 billion cubic meters of natural gas to Western Europe every year, and its foreign exchange income exceeds 654.38+05 billion US dollars. It controls 24% of the European natural gas market. In addition, it exports about 80 billion cubic meters to CIS countries every year. The business scope of Gazprom is mainly engaged in natural gas exploration, development, production, processing, storage, transportation and sales, as well as diversified businesses, including tourism, agriculture, aviation and communication. Both Russian gas fields and condensed gas fields are mined by this company, accounting for more than 95% of Russia's total output. Completely monopolize the production and sales of natural gas. Gazprom inherited the unified gas supply system of the Soviet Union, and has 2/kloc-0 natural gas production enterprises, 9 research institutes, 6 engineering bureaus and 6 service companies, with a total of 360,000 employees in directly affiliated enterprises and subsidiaries. The unified gas supply system in the Soviet era was huge, including 200 gas fields and condensed gas fields. The gas transmission trunk line is 226,000 kilometers; There are 407 compressor stations with a total installed capacity of 59 million kilowatts; 46 underground gas storages with a total effective capacity of 80 billion cubic meters; 4,500 gas distribution stations; 6 natural gas processing plants. The dispatching center of the unified gas supply system is in Moscow. After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the unified gas supply system operated as usual, and the related facilities outside Russia were rented by Gazprom. Besides CIS countries, it has also established joint ventures with about 70 companies in Europe, America and Africa. [7]

(3) Coal industry

Russia is rich in coal resources, and its proven recoverable reserves account for 12% of the world's total reserves, ranking third only after the United States and China, with the predicted reserves exceeding 5 trillion tons. Coal types are relatively complete, ranging from long-flame coal to lignite. The main coal bases in Russia are Kuznets mining area in western Siberia, Bojola mining area in northeastern Europe, Kansk-Achinsk mining area in eastern Siberia and suburban mining area in Moscow. Large coking coal bases are in Kuznets and Bojola. Larger open-pit coal mine bases are Kolkino in Urals, Lasker and Volchansk mining areas in Bogos; Kansk-Achinsk, Ir Kuske and Kuznetsk coalfields in Siberia; Leziha and Sakhalin Island in the Far East. In the coal industry, large and medium-sized coal mines dominate. There are 6 small coal mines with annual mining capacity below 6,543,800 tons; 0/4 coal mines/kloc-with an annual output of 1 10,000 to 5 million tons; With an annual output of 5 million to 100000 tons of coal mines10; There are 9 large coal mines with an annual output of100000 tons. [8]

The biggest defect of Russian coal resources is the extremely unbalanced regional distribution. More than three-quarters of them are distributed in the Asian part of Russia. Coal producing areas are far away from industrial areas that need a lot of coal, and backward traffic restricts the development of coal industry. The low profitability of the coal industry has also affected its own development. After the 1960s, the Soviet Union vigorously developed open-pit coal mining. Since 1990s, the proportion of open-pit coal mining in Russia's total coal output has declined. The geographical distribution of some reserves in Europe is as follows: 46.5% of the reserves are in central Russia, that is, Kuzbas coalfield; 23% of the reserves are located in the Yarsk region of Kra Si Nuo, almost all of which are lignite, which is suitable for open-pit mining. In addition, some thermal coal is distributed in Komi Republic (8.2 billion tons), Rostov oblast (6.5 billion tons) and Irkutsk oblast (5.5 billion tons).

Coal is the main fuel in eastern Siberia, western Siberia, Far East and Urals of Russia. In some of these economic zones, such as the Primorsky Krai in the Far East, the long-term shortage of fuel supply has restricted the economic development and adversely affected the employment of the labor force, the living standards of residents and social security. Among the geo-economic zones in Russia, only seven are coal-producing areas, while five are major coal-consuming areas. In seven major coal producing areas, such as West Siberia, East Siberia and North Caucasus, coal is actually completely self-sufficient. The other four regions, especially the Urals and the Far East, need to transport some coal abroad. The types and quality of coal needed in these areas are not satisfied by self-produced coal. Therefore, the annual coal output is about14, and the regions need to allocate about 40 million tons to 50 million tons, with an average transportation distance of 1000 km and the longest transportation distance of 3,000 km. Russia's coal industry reform policy was promulgated in 1993. Since 1993, the market competition in Russian coal industry has been formed, thus ensuring the demand of units with the ability to pay. At that time, there were also private coal companies that could finance themselves.

There are 72 coal production joint-stock companies (excluding subsidiaries) in the coal industry, of which 24 are federal holding companies and 6 are state-owned coal mining joint ventures. The main problem of Russian coal industry is that the production capacity of existing wells, mines and open-pit mines is declining. According to the data of the Institute of Economics of Russian Academy of Sciences, the price of natural gas will continue to rise in the future, and the production cost will continue to decline after the reorganization of coal enterprises, so the price of coal in various regions should be lower than that of natural gas. At present, the main reform task of coal industry is to set the development goal of coal industry according to the increasing demand; Close enterprises with serious losses as soon as possible to solve related social problems; Formulate an effective and flexible mechanism for the state to supervise private coal companies. 60% of Russia's coal production comes from private coal companies, so one of the tasks to be completed in the reform is to effectively regulate the production and operation of coal enterprises under the market economy. Therefore, using underground resources, ensuring a stable and sufficient supply of coal, perfecting legislation and standardizing the scope of power are the key points of national regulation and control. Modify the existing policies according to the situation, including: coal mine safety regulations and technical operation design quota of coal enterprises. The requirements of Russian Ministry of Electric Power to strengthen the regulation and control of coal industry include: training cadres, implementing departmental and inter-departmental scientific and technological development plans, and supporting and developing the enthusiasm of scientific research, design and manufacturing institutions. The main goal of Russian coal industry in the next stage is to create conditions for expanding reproduction and improve coal production potential. According to Russia's electric power strategy in 2020 and the federal target plan of "electricity efficient economy", the coal output should reach 300 million tons by 2005 and 430 million tons by 2020. In order to complete the total production capacity stipulated in the development plan, before 2005, it is necessary to invest 6710.40 billion rubles (calculated at the exchange rate of 5438+0 rubles in 2006). The above sources of funds depend not only on the enterprise's own funds, but also on the budget funds of the federal government. The total amount of extra-budgetary funds is 49.42 billion rubles, which will mainly come from enterprises' own funds (depreciation commission and profits), as well as foreign investment and bank loans.

2. Metallurgical industry

Metallurgical industry is a traditional industrial sector in Russia. Russia is rich in iron ore, and ferrous metallurgy is the pillar of this industry. Metallurgical industry is divided into ferrous metallurgy and nonferrous metallurgy. Large metallurgical centers are located in northwest China, central China, Urals, Kuzbas, Volga coast and western Siberia. Large metallurgical enterprises include: Magney Togorsk, Kreworozh, Novy Libetsk, West Siberia, Chelyabinsk, Powitz, etc. Among them, Magney Togorsk steel base is the largest. In the steelmaking department, the production process has been improved to some extent. The profitability of products and assets in steel and nonferrous metallurgy industries is higher than that in the whole industry. Russia's nonferrous metal industry includes aluminum, nickel, lead, zinc, copper and other industries. There is a large aluminum smelter in Ankara. In the non-ferrous metallurgical industry, tin, antimony and mercury smelting industries are underdeveloped, and Russia is a country with a shortage of these non-ferrous metals.

3. Chemical and petrochemical industries

The layout of Russian chemical and petrochemical industries is also shifting from the west to the east. The eastern part of Russia, especially Siberia and the Far East, is rich in oil and gas resources, forest resources, salt and apatite, which provides favorable resource conditions for the development of chemical industry. In 1970s and 1980s, more than a dozen oil processing plants were established in Siberia and the Far East, with an annual processing capacity of 6 million to120,000 tons of oil. The largest omsk oil processing plant in Russia processes 20-22 million tons of oil annually. Russia's chemical and petrochemical industries are mainly divided into five departments: basic chemistry, whose products are mainly sulfuric acid, soda ash, caustic soda and fertilizer; Chemical fibers and yarns; Synthetic resins and plastics; Synthetic rubber and tire industry. Focus on the development of chemical fertilizers, new structural materials and chemical fibers.

4. Machine building and metalworking industries

Machine building is the core of Russian industry and the foundation of scientific and technological progress. It provides technical equipment for the industry itself and other sectors of the national economy, and plays a key role in the technological modernization of the national economy. For a long time, the Soviet Union has been developing machinery manufacturing and metalworking industries at a faster rate than the whole industrial sector. One of the characteristics of Russian machine building industry is the high concentration and monopoly of production. According to official statistics, there are 420 monopoly enterprises in the whole industry, including 256 in machinery manufacturing. Another feature of machine manufacturing industry is that its production is closely related to militarization, and 80% of machine manufacturing enterprises are related to military production. The number of enterprises in the machinery manufacturing and metal processing sectors has increased rapidly. The subsidiary owners of machinery manufacturing industry are: heavy power and transportation machinery manufacturing industry; Automobile industry; Machine tool manufacturing and tool industry; Computer and instrument manufacturing; Automobile industry; Tractor and agricultural machinery manufacturing; Home appliance industry. In the whole machine manufacturing industry, Russia regards machine tool manufacturing, computer and instrument manufacturing, motor industry and electronic industry as the catalytic departments of scientific and technological progress. There are four kinds of best-selling household appliances in the Russian consumer market, namely TV sets, refrigerators, video recorders and washing machines.

Affected by the overall economic situation, the Russian household appliance industry has been in a difficult situation. From the internal factors, due to the shortage of funds, enterprises are unable to upgrade their technology, and the comprehensive competitiveness of self-produced household appliances is weak, which lags far behind similar imported products in terms of quality, performance and appearance. From the external conditions, while implementing the liberalization of foreign trade, the government failed to take necessary measures to protect national industries, and a large number of foreign home appliances flooded into the Russian market, which had a serious impact on the domestic home appliance industry. Well-known TV manufacturers are mainly concentrated in Europe and have a number of influential domestic brands. For example, "рубин" by Ruby TV Factory in Moscow; рекорд of Voronezh Telecom AG; "радуга" by rainbow shares Company in St. Petersburg; "садко" of Novgorod Quantum Joint Production Company, etc. These brands of TVs generally adopt the world's popular styles and designs, and the main foreign components are imported to Russia for assembly. The technical performance and appearance have been greatly improved, and the price level is basically the same as that of similar products abroad. Washing machine manufacturers are also basically distributed in Europe, such as Sverdlov Production Joint Company in Nizhny Novgorod, Stalas Cole Factory in Belgorod and Vesta AG in Kirov. Well-known domestic washing machine brands in the market are "вяткалена", "ока-9" and "Фея". The average price of most Russian washing machines in Moscow is around $ 30- 100. The refrigerator enterprises mainly include Gil AG in Moscow, Espergo AG in Smolensk, Olsk Machinery Factory in orenburg and Lipetsk Iron and Steel Enterprise in Lipetsk. Domestic refrigerator brands that can be seen in the market are "Stinol", "зил", "саратов" and "смоле". According to the Law on the Protection of Consumers' Rights and Interests, Russia implements a quality and safety certification system for some imported goods to see whether they meet the safety requirements stipulated by national standards and whether they hold corresponding commodity inspection certificates. Russia adjusts the import tax rate to a great extent every year to adapt to the changing market situation. The import tax rate of household appliances showed an obvious upward trend.

5. Building materials industry

Building materials industry is one of the traditional industrial sectors in Russia. All regions have raw materials for the production of building materials, and the building materials industry is mainly distributed in the industrially developed central region, the Volga River basin and the Urals region. The subordinate departments of building materials industry are: cement industry, reinforced concrete components and accessories industry, wall material industry, building ceramics industry, building materials made of polymer raw materials, non-mineral building materials industry and glass industry. There are 27 small enterprises in the cement production industry (the annual production capacity is less than 500,000 tons), accounting for 48% of the enterprises in this industry, and the cement produced accounts for 13% of the total cement output. Large enterprises 10 (the average annual production capacity is more than 2 million tons), accounting for 17.8% of the number of enterprises in this industry, and the cement produced accounts for 43% of the total output. Basque Cement Plant is the largest cement producer in Russia, and other large cement plants include mine cement plant, Schurowski cement plant and Volschi cement plant.

6. Forests, wood processing and pulp and paper industries

Russia is the country with the richest forest resources in the world, which provides a solid material resource base for the development of forestry, wood processing and pulp and paper industry. This sector is also a traditional industrial sector in Russia. Since 1990s, the number of enterprises in this sector has increased year by year, and in the process of privatization, the number of enterprises has greatly increased. This sector accounts for 4.3% of the total industrial productive fixed assets, only 2.5% higher than that of light industry. The main sub-industries of forest, wood processing and pulp and paper industry are: forest harvesting, wood processing and pulp and paper industry. There are about 3,500 furniture manufacturers in Russia, among which 550 large enterprises account for about 80% of the total domestic furniture industry. Domestic furniture enterprises are faced with two dilemmas. On the one hand, the high import tariffs on furniture production equipment and domestic parts prevent enterprises from carrying out technological transformation to improve product quality. On the other hand, the rising prices of some domestic and imported furniture raw materials and domestic energy have led to the rising production costs of enterprises, which are close to imported products and lose their market competitiveness.

7. Light industry

Light industry has always been a weak industrial sector with slow development and outdated equipment. The light industry sector is mostly small and medium-sized enterprises. The light industry sector has the smallest share of fixed assets, accounting for only 2.5% of all industrial sectors. The light industry sector is divided into textile industry, sewing industry, leather industry, fur industry and footwear industry. It is predicted that the development goal of Russian textile industry in 20 10 is to increase the share of domestic competitive products in the domestic market to 55%. Russia's light industry has the ability to maintain a leading position in the market of linen, wool, leather, fur and chemical fiber fabrics, but products such as clothing, knitted fabrics and shoes lag behind foreign countries. In foreign markets, Russia's export products are mainly cloth.

8. Food industry

The food industry mainly includes: cereal food manufacturing, meat food manufacturing, milk food manufacturing, fish products manufacturing, sugar and candy manufacturing, various beverages manufacturing, oil and salt manufacturing and so on. Russian flour industry is mainly distributed in Volga River basin, North Caucasus and central black soil area. The main flour industry centers are saratov, Chelyabinsk and orenburg. The oil industry is mainly distributed in the main sunflower producing areas such as the North Caucasus, the central black soil area and the Volga River basin. Canning industry is mainly distributed in central China, black soil area in central China, North Caucasus and other places. Among them, the canned fruit and vegetable industry is concentrated in the North Caucasus, the canned meat and milk industry is concentrated in the northwest, Kaliningrad, Central China, Siberia and other places, and the canned fish industry is mainly concentrated in the Far East, North China and Kaliningrad where fisheries are developed. In addition to Moscow, St. Petersburg and other big cities in Russia, there are specialized candy and snack processing enterprises, and general flour and grain processing enterprises also produce candy and cakes. Russian meat processing industry is mainly distributed in the central region, the North Caucasus, the Volga River basin and western Siberia, which account for more than half of Russian meat production. Moscow and St. Petersburg are the largest meat processing centers in Russia, and their processing capacity greatly exceeds the supply capacity of raw materials in this region. Therefore, they have to rely on long-distance transportation of livestock. The Russian sugar industry is mainly distributed in the North Caucasus, the black soil area in the middle and the central region, and the main sugar-making centers are Voronezh and Tula.

[1] More than 1/2 of the Soviet textile industry and 1/5 of the machinery industry are concentrated in the central area with Moscow as the center. The northwest region centered on St. Petersburg is an important processing industrial zone in the Soviet Union, with developed departments such as precision machinery manufacturing, electromechanical, chemistry and nonferrous metallurgy. The timber harvesting, sawn timber, economic timber export and pulp and paper industry in the northern region all rank first in the Soviet Union. The coal mining industry in Urals ranks second in the Soviet Union.

[2] Eastern Russia, including Siberia and the Far East, covers an area of1276,590 square kilometers, accounting for more than two thirds of Russian territory. In recent years, the status of the East has become higher and higher. Russia is a federation spanning Eurasia, and the level of economic development between the east and the west is quite different. Some industries in Europe have a solid foundation and complete departments, accounting for more than 3/4 of Russia's total output value. However, due to the limited resources in Europe, the further development of the economy is greatly restricted. The eastern region is rich in natural resources, but the industrial base here is weak, the department is single, and the resources are far from being fully utilized. In order to change this unreasonable distribution of productive forces, Russia has implemented the policy of industrial eastward shift, which is called "programmatic policy". The Russian economy is increasingly dependent on the eastern region. The eastern region will play an important role in strengthening economic and military strength and ensuring exports. Especially in 2 1 century, this will be the "Asia-Pacific era", and Russia will pay more attention to its eastern development. /sys WSC/gwdsygsgk/zh sygs/elssygfgs . htm。

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[8] See Eurasian Research Network.