Teach students in accordance with their aptitude and inspire them.
Teaching students in accordance with their aptitude is recognized as one of the excellent traditional teaching concepts. Confucius pays attention to observing and understanding students. "Look at what they are, what they are, and where they are safe (the Analects of Confucius is politics), that is, look at what students do and understand their experiences and hobbies. For students, it is necessary to "listen to what they say and observe what they do" and "retire and keep their privacy" (The Analects of Confucius for Politics), that is, to examine students' private words and deeds after class and fully grasp their characteristics and actual situation. He knows all about students' personality characteristics, sometimes from their advantages, sometimes from their shortcomings, and sometimes from different students. According to students' different personality characteristics, he is targeted and persuasive, not indiscriminate preaching. Sometimes students ask the same question, but he gives different answers. According to The Analects of Confucius Advanced, "Lutz asked,' What did Si Wen do?' Confucius said, "Why do you smell it when your father and brother are around?" You Ran asked: Si Wen Xing Zhi. Gong Xihua said:' I also ask for work, and the son said that there are fathers and brothers, so I also ask for work. Confucius said that Si Wen would do it. Red is also confused and dares to ask. "Confucius said:' Seek to retreat, so enter; I retired because I am also a human being. ""This is teaching students in accordance with their aptitude. Confucius also advocated different teaching methods for students' intelligence: "If you are above the average person, you can speak orally;" Under China people, you can't speak orally. "("The Analects of Confucius Yongye ")
Mencius inherited and developed Confucius' thought of teaching students in accordance with their aptitude, emphasizing the reform of teaching methods. He said: "If the rain changes, those who have virtue will succeed, those who have wealth will succeed, those who have answers will succeed, and those who have personal love" (Mencius); "There are many skills in teaching, but only teaching is disdainful" (Mencius Gao Zi Xia). In Song Dynasty, Zhang Zai advocated that teaching should take into account students' inherent requirements, so that students' intelligence and wisdom can be fully brought into play. He said: "Teaching people is extremely difficult, so we must make full use of them so as not to miss them." If you teach people to be "not exhausted, not concerned about safety and not sincere, it is all wrong" (Quotations Copy). Zhu praised Confucius and Mencius' thought of teaching students in accordance with their aptitude in Notes to Four Books: "Sages teach students in accordance with their aptitude." Wang Shouren believes that teaching should pay attention to students' age characteristics: "Generally speaking, a boy's feelings, he is willing to swim but afraid of being arrested, such as the beginning of the germination of vegetation, which is easy to reach and frustrated." Teaching boys today will make them tend to be inspired and happy, so they can't get in. For example, when rain and spring breeze touch flowers and trees, they will sprout and grow, and naturally they will grow longer and longer. First frost, on the other hand, has a sluggish business. "He believes that people's qualifications are different, and teaching must be' limited by everyone' ('Answer the Yellow River in the direction'), which varies from person to person and cannot be neglected." People below the middle class will talk to him about sex, so he doesn't have to save it, but he should also ponder it slowly "(Taoism and Liu Yuanshu). Teaching should pay attention to everyone's strong and weak characteristics, such as treating diseases and applying drugs due to illness. Teaching and treating diseases are the same.
In a word, ancient educators in China believed that students' personalities were different, and each student's natural endowments were different, so the teaching methods also varied from person to person. They oppose using a model to bind students, but advocate developing each student's personality through education. In terms of teaching methods, ancient educators in China paid special attention to inspiration and induction in order to develop the intellectual potential of each student. Confucius has a famous saying: "If you don't get angry, you will be threatened, if you don't get angry, you will be threatened, if you don't get angry, you will be threatened." ("The Analects of Confucius") Zhu's "Notes to the Four Books" notes: "Those who are angry can't get through their hearts. Those who are anxious can talk, but they will fail. Kai means opening it. Send it, that is, reach its words. " Confucius often used heuristic teaching. On one occasion, one of his students, Xia Zi, read a poem: "I always think it is gorgeous to smile and look forward to beautiful eyes." When asked about the meaning of this poem, Confucius replied: "After painting." Xia Zi understood what the teacher meant. Painting must have a clean foundation, which means that "rites and music" must be based on the idea of "benevolence and righteousness". However, Xia Zi was not sure about the idea, so she further asked, "After the ceremony?" Confucius said happily: "It is also a businessman who gives!" ! Dialogue with poetry has become possible. "("The Analects of Confucius, Eight Shu ") What is the original intention of this poem, regardless of it for the time being. From the perspective of teaching methods, Confucius avoided preaching with pure morality here, but used the role of thinking in images to lead from vivid and concrete pictures to abstract moral concepts, so as to impress students, actively understand the meaning of "benevolence and righteousness" and consciously accept the education and constraints of "rites and music". This can be said to be an example of heuristic teaching.
Mencius also has a famous saying: "A gentleman leads without sending, jumping like a horse." It means that a teacher is like a shooter, with a full bow instead of an arrow, making an eager gesture to inspire and induce students and stimulate their enthusiasm for learning. Xue Ji further developed the heuristic teaching of Confucius and Mencius: "The teaching of a gentleman is metaphorical. Tao leads, strong and restrained, open and far-reaching. Tao leads to harmony, strength leads to restraint and opening leads to thinking. Harmony with Yi Yisi can be described as a good metaphor. " This means that teachers should be good at inspiring and inducing students to think for themselves and get understanding. The way should be: guide students instead of pulling; Encourage students rather than force them to obey; Inspire students, not tell them the conclusion at once. Guiding, not pulling, can deal with the contradiction between teaching and learning and make it harmonious; Encourage rather than force, so that students feel that learning is easy; Enlightening students rather than drawing conclusions can cultivate their ability to think independently. Doing so can be said to be good at inspiring and inducing.
The so-called "Tao" (guidance) is to guide students to the correct thinking network in teaching, to guide students' thinking activities "on the road", to urge students to analyze and synthesize, and to find the direction of exploring knowledge conclusions. The so-called "strong" (motivation) is to stimulate students' automaticity in teaching, make them have a strong desire to explore knowledge, motivate them to start the thinking machine and consciously adhere to the thinking activities of exploring knowledge conclusions. The so-called "openness" is the key to pointing out problems in teaching, inspiring students to use various thinking activities to solve problems and promoting the development of students' thinking ability. More than two thousand years ago, Chinese ancient educators profoundly expounded the heuristic teaching thought.
Pay equal attention to reviewing old knowledge and learning new ideas
The first sentence in The Analects of Confucius is what Confucius said: "It is better to learn from time to time than to please!"! ? "He also said:" Reviewing the past and learning new things can be a teacher. " Zhu explained in the Notes to Four Books: "The old is the old; Newcomers get what they got today. You can learn while talking. Every time you have something new, you can learn old news. " He further developed Confucius' new idea of learning from old friends, saying: "People who don't study can't know what they should know and can't do what they should do. If you learn without learning, you will know the truth and do things, but you will also be embarrassed and dangerous, and you can't take it as it is. Although he is sometimes known as the ambition of Xi, his kung fu is intermittent and violent, which is not enough to achieve his achievements in Xi. " He also said: "Looking back from time to time, you will find that the taste is deep and long, and you will find new things." "It is necessary to review the past to know the new. If you don't review the past and seek new things, you can't know new things and you can't get new ones. " Zhu believes that "old" is the foundation of "new" and "new" is the development of "old"; And "time habit" embodies the relationship between them and contains the meaning of transformation. "Learning from time to time" can enable them to master what they have learned, turn it into skills, and apply what they have learned endlessly. In his opinion, people who only mechanically repeat old news and can't draw inferences from others are not qualified to be teachers. Therefore, we say, "Review the past and learn the new. I don't know anything new, so I don't think it's a teacher. "
Reviewing the past and learning the new embodies such a teaching law: learning itself is a process of continuous practice, and only by repeated learning and practice can we firmly grasp the knowledge we have learned; Only by mastering what you have learned can you draw inferences from others, tell people you have known in the past, and explore the unknown from the known. This idea of attaching importance to the study of the past and neglecting the exploration of new knowledge still has guiding significance today.
In dealing with the relationship between learning and thinking, China ancient educators combined with Zhang Xuesi, paying equal attention to learning and thinking. Confucius said, "Learning without thinking is useless, and thinking without learning is dangerous." His teacher, Zhang Xuesi, also attaches importance to it, but it should be based on study: "I don't eat all day, and it's no use staying up late to think. It is better to learn. " He also stressed the need to think on the basis of learning: "If you don't know what you are, you know what you are." . Xunzi inherited this idea from Confucius. He also said: "I have been thinking all day, so I might as well learn it in an instant." It also requires "thinking through" on the basis of learning, that is, integrating the learned knowledge through thinking activities.
The Doctrine of the Mean develops Confucius' thought of paying equal attention to learning and thinking into five learning steps: erudition, doubt, thinking, understanding and belief, and affirms that both learning and thinking should be paid equal attention to, and "doubt, thinking and understanding" is the embodiment of thinking activities. "The Doctrine of the Mean" also said: "There are Fu Xue, Fu Nengzhi and Fu CuO; There are questions, problems and measures; There are blessings, and the blessings of thinking are greater than the blessings; There are Fu Bian, Fu Ming and Fu CuO; There are blessings, blessings, blessings. If a person can do it, he will do it; People have ten ways to do it, and they have thousands; If you can do this, you will know if you are stupid, but if you are soft, you will be strong. " It is clearly pointed out here that a person's intelligence and strength are cultivated in the process of continuous learning and thinking, and the decisive factor is his tenacious efforts rather than his talent.
Zhu said: "Learning is reading, reading and thinking, thinking and reading, naturally intentional. If you read without thinking, you won't know its meaning; Thinking without reading, even if you know, is always uneasy. It's like asking someone to look after the house. It doesn't belong to your family, but it doesn't belong to your own command in the end. If you read well and think well, you will never forget it. " Wang Fuzhi said more thoroughly: "learning is not an obstacle to thinking, but the more you learn, the farther you think;" Thinking is active in learning, thinking is difficult, and learning must be diligent. "These are their profound experience and incisive summary of the dialectics of the relationship between learning and thinking in the practice of education and scholarship.
Step by step, withdraw the contract from Bo.
Ancient educators in China generally attached importance to the teaching principle of step by step. Confucius' students praised Confucius as "good and charming". Mencius believes that teaching is a natural development process, on the one hand, we must constantly strive for self-improvement and cannot relax or stop; On the one hand, we should not be impatient or impatient. He said: "A gentleman's ambition is in the Tao, and there is no chapter." He compared the second place in his study to running water, saying, "It's not good to show off customers" and "sharp people will be slow". Mencius also used the natural growth of rice seedlings to describe the process of people's education. On the one hand, he advocates trying to cultivate and opposes laissez-faire; On the other hand, they are opposed to encouraging others and are eager for success.
The "way of learning" put forward in Xue Ji is also against "waiting". It said, "A good questioner is like attacking a tree. The first one is very simple, and the second one is the program. For a long time, he will talk about the solution. People who are not good at asking questions are the opposite. Be kind to the questioner, such as ringing the bell. If you tap him gently, he will ring loudly. If you knock on him loudly, wait for him calmly, and then try your best to answer the question. This is the way to learn. " This is the principle of gradual progress in teaching.
Zhang Zai believes that the teaching process is "urgent but not urgent, and it is gradually needed by people." Because the difficulty of teaching materials and the development of students' body and mind are "step by step", this requires that teaching should also adhere to the principle of "step by step" and cannot wait for teaching. Zhu put forward the teaching idea of "step by step, read carefully and think carefully" more clearly. He said: "A gentleman teaches people to be orderly. First, teach those who are near to be small, and then teach those who are far away to be big." "For example, mountaineering, many people want to go to high places, and they don't know how to ignore it from low places, so there is no reason to go to high places." He emphasized that teaching should be from near to far, from easy to difficult, from shallow to deep, from concrete to abstract, from known to unknown. Zhu also said: "Sages teach people to go to school and do as they are told. Therefore, people who engage in it are knowledgeable and important, and they are not alone. There is no harm in arrogance. Today's scholars are even more opposed to this, so the highest is illusory, and the humble is submerged in the smell, and it is unknown. " He believes that if you don't go to school first and want to achieve, you will wait, and then it will be illusory; If you don't want success in school, you will be addicted to what you hear and see. The former is to move forward rashly out of order, while the latter is a waste of energy, even if it does not move forward in order, it will not achieve its goal. He believes that only step by step and according to one's abilities can we make steady progress.
In a word, ancient educators in China have realized that the accumulation of knowledge and the growth of intelligence are a gradual process, which cannot be achieved overnight. They emphasize that teaching should pay attention to stages and rhythms, let nature take its course and conform to objective laws.
Confucius said, "Literatures should be learned, and courtesy should be made", and "consistent giving should be made". Mao Qiling explained in The Analects of Confucius: "This agreement is an agreement with Yobo by courtesy. Bo Yu Wen, Wen Yu Li. " Mencius inherited this idea from Confucius, who said, "If you are knowledgeable and refined, you will make an agreement with irony." Pointing out the correct way to pursue advanced studies is not only to be knowledgeable, but also to be good at going to appointments from Bo. Xunzi put forward the idea of "balancing everything in the middle", teaching people to get rid of ten masks and weigh things in a positive way. He said: "Knowing more without relatives, learning without methods, knowing more without determination, a gentleman does not admit defeat." "It makes sense to recite the numbers coherently and think about it." "If you pat your collar, you can pat it with your five fingers." These are the principles of breaking promises from Bo and keeping promises to Bo. On the one hand, Han Yu emphasizes erudition and advocates "take more, don't donate less" and "collect and store, don't use it". On the other hand, he also emphasized the strict agreement, demanding "mentioning its importance" and "fishing for its mystery", and opposing "learning diligently without being controlled by it, and not saying much". It is believed that only by entering the school in this way can the teaching effect of "immersing in depression and appealing to both refined and popular tastes" be achieved.
Ancient educators in China attached importance to "erudition" and demanded "consistent way" to control extensive knowledge. Bo is the basis of the contract. Seeking a contract on the basis of knowledge is to summarize, simplify or summarize all kinds of knowledge achievements according to certain principles and draw concise conclusions. This is an important way of thinking and learning, and also a teaching method. As a teacher, we should make it clear. Without extensive knowledge of this truth, it is difficult to tell students clearly the key points, difficulties and emphases of this truth. Breaking the contract and making things simple is an important educational thought left by our old friends, which deserves our serious experience.
Be good at saving losses and teaching.
The Book of Rites puts forward the teaching idea of being good at saving the lost. "Xue Ji" said: "If a scholar makes four mistakes, he must know it. People learn too much, or lose too little, or lose too easily, or stop. These four hearts are different. Know his heart, and then you can recover his loss. Those who teach grow well and save those who lose. " In other words, in the process of learning, some students are too greedy and too complicated to ask for answers; Some students show that their knowledge is too narrow and cling to the disabled; Some students are not specific and have a little taste; Some students show that they are afraid of difficulties and hold back. These four kinds of questions reflect students' different psychological states about learning. Only by understanding these psychological states can teachers help students overcome these problems. Teachers must grasp the specific situation, improve the situation, be good at developing students' advantages and overcome students' shortcomings.
More and less, easy and difficult are not fixed, and gains and losses can also be transformed into each other. Wang Fuzhi said in Volume XVIII of the Book of Rites: "Although many, few, easy and stop have their own disadvantages, many are easy to learn, few are easy to specialize, easy to be brave, and stop is orderly and good; If it is lost, it is good. " Although there are too many shortcomings, too few and too easy to stop, it also contains some positive factors. Teachers should comprehensively observe students, understand the dialectics of teaching, and tap, cultivate and carry forward positive factors and overcome negative factors according to the beauty and evil of students with learning difficulties and qualified students. This is to make good use of each other's strengths, learn from each other's strengths, and recover losses. It not only contains the meaning of attaching importance to positive education and guiding according to the situation, but also contains the idea of teaching students in accordance with their aptitude.
China's ancient educational thought is full of simple dialectical view. He is good at using the law of contradiction transformation, and especially emphasizes seeing the advantages and positive factors in students, even secondary and hidden, so as to consolidate, carry forward and overcome them. This is also the essence of China's humanistic education thought.
The Book of Rites also clearly put forward the idea of learning from each other. It said: "Although there are exquisite dishes, I don't know the purpose of eating. Although there is supreme Tao, Buddhism does not know its goodness. It is to learn and then know the deficiency, and to teach and then know the difficulty. If you don't know enough, then you can reverse; Advance despite difficulties, and then strive for self-improvement. So teaching and learning learn from each other. " Redemption says: learn half. So that's it! This paper profoundly expounds the contradiction, opposition, interdependence and mutual promotion between "teaching" and "learning". Teaching benefits from learning, and learning progresses day by day because of teaching. Teaching can promote learning, and conversely, learning can also promote teaching, which is called "learning from teaching". "Learning from teaching" means not only the unity of opposites between teaching and learning, but also the equality, mutual promotion and complementary relationship between teachers and students. From the teacher's point of view, the process of teaching is also the process of learning, and teaching is also learning. Teaching and learning can promote each other, thus improving the teaching level. As far as students are concerned, students get knowledge from teachers' teaching, but they still need to study hard to improve themselves, not just teachers. A persuasive teacher can only realize the effect and difficulty of teaching through teaching practice. The richer the teaching experience, the more he can touch the law of teaching, find his own weaknesses and puzzles, and "learn after teaching." "Advance despite difficulties" can promote teachers' "self-improvement". An active and studious student can realize the benefits and difficulties of learning only through the practice of learning. The more you learn, the more you feel that your knowledge is shallow and insufficient. "Deficiency" can make scholars "reflexive", that is, demanding themselves more strictly and studying hard to supplement their own shortcomings.
Han Yu inherited and developed the idea of "learning from each other's strengths to make up for each other's weaknesses" in Xue Ji, and then put forward the viewpoint of "learning from each other's strengths to make up for each other's weaknesses". On the one hand, he affirmed the leading role of teachers; On the other hand, it puts forward a new viewpoint that "disciples need not be inferior to teachers, and teachers need not be superior to disciples". He teaches people to learn from learned people, and whoever is better than himself in some way will worship him as a teacher, and set up the concept of "capable people are teachers". He also affirmed that the smell of "Tao" comes first, "sleep first and then sleep"; The objective law of the teaching process of "knowing" and "not knowing" in college. These profound thoughts of teaching dialectics are rare even in modern world educational monographs, and they are outstanding contributions of China ancient educators to the treasure house of world educational thoughts.
Lead by example, respect teachers and love students.
According to their own experience in educational practice, ancient educators in China put forward many requirements for teachers, one of which is to set an example by example.
Confucius said: "His body is upright and he goes without orders; His body is not right, although he does not obey. " "Can't be right, like a right person?" (The Analects of Confucius Lutz) Here, the importance of "setting an example" is emphasized. He also said: "you can speak in words, but you can't speak in words, which will lose people;" You can't talk in words, but with words, you will spill the beans. The knower does not lose people, and does not lose words. " (The Analects of Confucius. Wei Linggong), he advocated both "teaching by example" and "teaching by example". If you can use "words and deeds", use "words and deeds". If you can't use "words and deeds", you can influence and educate students through hints or your daily behavior. There is a certain psychological basis here. Confucius called it "silence", and he believed in the power of "teaching without speaking".
Xunzi put forward: "there are four ways to learn from others, and learning from others has nothing to do." If you are strict with the teacher, you can be a teacher; Love and believe that you can become a teacher; If you don't commit a crime, you can be a teacher; In a word, you can be a teacher. " (Xunzi Shi Zhi) He believes that teachers must meet four conditions (extensive knowledge is not included): first, teachers must have dignity and be able to make people respect him; Second, teachers should have high prestige and rich teaching experience; Thirdly, teachers should have the ability to impart knowledge in an orderly and systematic way without violating teachers' theory; Understand subtle theories and explain them clearly. Xue Ji also puts forward strict requirements for teachers, taking teachers' noble morality and academic progress as the necessary conditions for teaching and educating people, and mastering the correct teaching methods and principles.
Justin, a native of the Jin Dynasty, said in Records of the Emperors in the Later Han Dynasty: "Teachers are easy to meet, but teachers are hard to meet." It can be seen that the standard of "being a teacher" is not only imparting knowledge, but also being a teacher. This is China's excellent traditional educational thought in ancient times.
China ancient educators also advocated that students should respect teachers, and teachers should love students and establish a good relationship between teachers and students. Confucius loves students, cares about the improvement of students' morality and studies, and also cares about their life and health. Seeing the progress of the students, he is sincerely happy; The student's family is poor, and he often helps; The student was ill, so he went to visit. The student died and he was very sad. He has established a deep friendship with his students. Confucius said, "Can you love for nothing?" ? Loyalty and righteousness, can you not teach? "("The Analects of Confucius ") and said:" The second son and the third son take me as a secret? I have nothing to hide. If I do nothing and don't work with two or three sons, it's Ye Qiu. " (The Analects of Confucius) Confucius achieved "selflessness and no concealment" for his students, and placed infinite expectations: "The afterlife is terrible, how can we know that new people are not now?" (The Analects of Confucius Zi Han). He also believes that when a just cause needs people to undertake, the younger generation should dare to go forward and be duty-bound. Even in front of their teachers, they don't have to be modest and "do their duty" (The Analects of Confucius, Wei Linggong). Confucius' students admire Confucius' noble morality, profound knowledge and correct teaching methods. Yan Yuan said, "The higher you climb, the harder you drill. Look ahead, suddenly how come back. The master coaxed me and wrote me articles, asking me to be polite and unable to stop. I have exhausted my talents, if I make a difference. Although I want to follow it, I have no reason. " (The Analects of Confucius. After the death of Confucius, the students set up a thatched cottage next to the tomb of Confucius to mourn for three years. Zigong was reluctant to leave and lived alone for another three years. Zi Gong said, "If your master is out of reach, it is still out of reach of heaven." (The Analects of Confucius Zi Han) expresses students' infinite memory and admiration for Confucius.
Mozi also emphasizes respecting teachers and loving students in educational practice, and Mohist teachers and students can live and die together. Mozi and his students "take the hills and browns as their clothes, think that clothes are their clothes, work day and night, and take self-suffering as the extreme" (Zhuangzi Tianxia). Students follow Mozi's "go through fire and water, not followed by death", and this relationship between teachers and students is gradually established in the process of living and dying together.
Xunzi regards "respecting teachers and valuing morality" as the height of the rise and fall of the country, and advocates that students are superior to teachers. He said: "the country will be prosperous, and teaching is expensive and important; ..... The country will decline, so it is better to be a teacher. " He believes that students not only have knowledge and knowledge inheritance relationship to teachers, but also shoulder the responsibility of surpassing the wisdom of predecessors and improving academic level. He said in vivid language, "You can't stop learning. Green is taken from blue, and green is blue; Ice, water is cooler than water. " This shows that learning is endless, and "shine on you is better than Blue" is the law of academic development.
There is a saying in Han Ying's "Biography of Han Poetry Volume V" in the Western Han Dynasty: "Wisdom is like a spring, and behavior can be a good example and a teacher." There is a saying in Yang Xiong's A Passage to Xue Yan: "Teacher! Teacher! So is a boy's life. Learning is not as good as learning. Teachers are also role models. "
Some educators in the Song Dynasty were also models of respecting teachers and loving students. On the one hand, Hu Yuan advocated "the ceremony of mentoring"; On the other hand, it also advocates deep affection and harmony between teachers and students. He usually treats his students as children, and students treat him as their father and brother. Hao Cheng is amiable, and students often feel "sitting in the spring breeze" when they get along with him. Cheng Yi is dignified and resolute. Some students saw him sitting quietly with his eyes closed and didn't dare to disturb him. They stood at the door until the snow accumulated more than a foot deep, leaving a much-told story. Zhu once criticized the disadvantages of the indifference between teachers and students in government schools. "When teachers and students meet, they are as indifferent as people on the road." He carried forward the spirit of "teaching people tirelessly" of Confucius, was persuasive and tireless, and had deep feelings for students. His student Huang Wo said in his "Zhu Zi Xiang Xing": "Zhu Zi lectured on the classics, running through ancient and modern times until midnight. Although the disease is fragmented, students will lose their indulgence when asking questions. If they don't give lectures for a day, they will often feel worried. " Reflects the feelings of a great teacher. Zhu's requirements for students are strict, but not passive prevention, but positive guidance, which does not pay attention to formal regulations, but inspires students to consciously abide by them. Enthusiastic teaching and appropriate methods can deepen the friendship between teachers and students and close the relationship between teachers and students. Zhu's experience contains universal laws and embodies the fine tradition of respecting teachers and loving students in the history of ancient education in China, which is often praised and used for reference by future generations.