The phenomenon of land rent is so complicated that some small problems related to it have been debated endlessly on the value issue.

There are so many practical problems that it is necessary to supplement our previous examples of land use. we can

In order to prove it again with imaginary goods, this kind of goods should be chosen so that it has its own characteristics at all stages of the problem.

Their own obvious characteristics, without causing criticism, think that these characteristics do not exist in the real relationship between landlord and tenant.

But before discussing this point, we can use the destination of land rent to illustrate the value problem. Because it's big.

Some economic sciences are really devoted to the study of economic changes that mainly affect specific production or consumption sectors.

It is common in the whole society; There is almost no economic principle that you can't "advance" with a certain tax, that is, leave raw materials and raw materials.

It is appropriate to discuss whether the producer of tools is passed on to the final consumer or "pushed backwards" in the opposite direction.

When the instruction. This is especially applicable to the problems under discussion.

There is a general principle that if some people produce goods or services and sell them to others, they will be taxed.

In everything. Then, this tax tends to reduce production. This will increase most taxes.

Pass it on to consumers, and a small part will be passed on to those who supply the necessities of production for this group of producers.

. Similarly, the consumption tax on anything is passed on to its producers to varying degrees.

For example, imposing unexpectedly heavy taxes on the printing industry will severely hit people engaged in this industry.

Strike, because if they try to raise prices substantially, that is to say, demand will inevitably drop sharply. But all walks of life engaged in this industry

The blow is different. Because printing machines and typesetters are not easy to find employment outside the printing industry,

The price of printing presses and the wages of typesetters once fell very low. On the contrary, factories and electrical equipment, as well as miscellaneous items.

Workers, engineers and employees will not wait for their numbers and reduced demand through the slow process of natural destruction.

Seek adaptation; Some of them will soon find a way out in other industries, and they will be held accountable by those who still operate for a long time.

There is nothing to bear. In addition, a large part of tax revenue must be borne by auxiliary industries such as paper industry and mold industry.

Because the sales of their products have decreased. Authors and publishers will also suffer some losses; Because they are not.

Forcibly raising the price of books, thus reducing the number of sales, is to let the cost absorb most of their total income. Finally,

The total sales of booksellers have decreased, so they will also suffer some losses.

It is speculated that tax revenue is widely distributed, involving various fields that printing industry can easily enter. but

If it is only a local tax, the typesetter is bound to move out of the scope of rent tax; At the same time, the owner of the printing factory and the office

The tax burden may be more than those of factory owners, not less. Their funds are more dedicated, but easy to mobilize.

If this kind of local tax cannot be compensated by any result that tends to attract the population, then part of the burden will fall.

On the shoulders of ground contractors and grocers, because their sales will be reduced.

Secondly, suppose that the tax levied is the printing machine tax, not the printed matter tax. In this case, if the printing industry

If there are no semi-old machines that they are willing to destroy or abandon, then this tax will not hit marginal product. it

It won't affect the printing quantity immediately, so it won't affect its price. It will only intercept the owner's line halfway.

Take part of the remuneration and reduce the quasi-rent of the printing machine. But this will not affect the past to lure people into putting liquidity.

Net profit margin required by printing machine. Therefore, when the printing press wears out, this tax will increase profits.

The cost of production will increase the cost that producers feel hesitant and free to choose. Therefore, printing

The supply of brushes decreased and the price increased. And the reference of the new printing machine will only reach that margin, where the root is.

According to the judgment of ordinary printers, they can not only pay rent tax, but also provide normal profits for that kind of expenditure.

At this stage, the burden distribution of printing machine tax is roughly the same as that of printing tax, except for one thing.

That is to say, the temptation to grab a huge amount of work from each printing machine is even greater. For example, more printing machines can be realized.

Double shift system, although night shift will cause special expenses.

Now we will apply these principles of tax transfer to our main example.

The second section discusses the relationship between land rent and quasi-land rent and value.

Let's assume that there are thousands of large meteorites harder than diamonds falling in one place, so people immediately put it.

Children pick it up, and then pick it up. These meteorites can cut all kinds of things, which will inevitably lead to leather in many industrial sectors.

Life; The owner of the meteorite has a special advantage in production and will provide a huge producer surplus. This residue

On the one hand, it is completely determined by the urgency and size of the demand for their services, on the other hand, it is also determined by the number of meteorites.

It's been fixed. It will not be affected by the cost of getting more supplies, because it is impossible to regenerate an output at any cost.

Block it. The production cost can indirectly affect their value, but it is made of hard steel and other materials.

The cost of tools and the supply of these tools will increase with the increase of demand. If smart producers get used to it

If any meteorite is used to complete the work that can also be done with this tool, the value of that meteorite will not be great.

It greatly exceeds the production cost (minus depreciation) of those tools that are equally effective in these secondary uses.

Because meteorites are hard and not affected by friction, they may be in full working days.

The interior is being used. If their service is valuable, then, in order to let them provide the greatest service.

It is worthwhile to work overtime or even implement two or three shifts. But the more they use it, the more they

Every time a service is added, the net salary will decrease; In this way, this law shows that not only land,

In addition, there are various other production tools. If you use too much, it will inevitably lead to diminishing returns.

The total supply of meteorites is fixed. Of course, any particular manufacturer can buy as much as he wants.

Less. For a long time, he will provide interest (or profit) on other expenses spent on meteorites, if he works by himself.

It's as if he bought a machine, and its supply can be increased indefinitely.

So its price is similar to its production cost.

But once he bought the meteorite, the production process still needed those things they produced.

Changes in demand may make their income double or only half of his expected income.

In the latter case, similar to the benefits of this machine, there is no latest improvement.

You can only earn half as much as a new machine with the same cost.

The value of meteorites and machines is also the capital reduction of the income they can earn, and this income is

Determined by the pure value of the services they provide. Earning ability, and their respective values, do not depend on.

Its production cost depends on the general supply and demand relationship of its products. But for machines, this supply

Giving is limited by the supply cost of new machines with the same efficiency as it, but in the case of meteorites, this is not the case.

Restrictions, as long as the existing meteorites are used to do work that nothing else can do.

Try another way to illustrate the above argument. Because whoever buys meteorites belongs to other manufacturers.

Where did he buy it? His purchase did not substantially affect the general supply and demand relationship of services provided by Meteorite. Therefore, it

Does not affect the price of meteorites; Moreover, this price is provided by meteorites for those least urgent uses.

Capital reduction of service value. It is claimed that the buyer expects to make a normal profit from the capital reduction price representing the service value.

Benefit is equal to asserting that the value of services provided by meteorites is determined by the value of those services, which is a cycle.

Open.

Secondly, we assume that these meteorites were not discovered immediately, but scattered on the ground of public land.

In fact, as long as you look hard, you can find one here or there. Then, people will only search for meteorites.

Reaching that point (or margin), the possible benefits of finding meteorites at that point are just enough to compensate for the labor for a long time.

Liquidity and capital expenditure; For a long time, the normal value of meteorites is the value of maintaining the balance between supply and demand.

The number of meteorites found every year, for a long time, is precisely the normal demand price equal to the normal supply price.

A quantity.

Finally, let's compare meteorites with light machinery and other equipment commonly used in the processing industry.

Assuming that meteorites are fragile and will soon wear out, this situation also applies; Suppose there is

An inexhaustible resource, which can quickly and reliably obtain additional supply at almost constant cost.

. On this occasion, the value of meteorites is always roughly equal to the cost;

Changes in demand have little effect on their prices, because a slight change in prices will quickly put them on the market.

The stock of meteorites has changed greatly. In this case, the income of meteorites (minus depreciation

) is always very close to the interest on its production cost.

Section 3 continues.

Many of the above assumptions are constantly extending from one extreme to the other. At one extreme, they are taken from meteorites.

The income of stone is strictly land rent, but at the other extreme, it would rather be with free capital or working capital.

This interest is included in one category. In the first extreme case, the meteorite can't be worn or destroyed, and its number.

The quantity remains the same. Of course, they have a tendency to be allocated to various uses, and among these uses,

Scientists use it in such a way as to increase the supply of meteorites to meet the needs of a certain purpose, if meteorites are not taken out of meteorites.

It is unacceptable that the pure service provided has at least the same value for other purposes. It can be seen that the application allowance for several purposes is

It is determined by the relationship between the fixed number of meteorites and the total demand for meteorites for different purposes. These profits

Once so decided, the price to be paid for using them is provided by them.

The value of service.

Collecting the first-class tax on meteorites from users will reduce the pure service of meteorites in various uses.

Numbers are equal to taxes. This tax will not affect the distribution of meteorites in several uses; Maybe it's because of readjusting the grinding.

After some delay caused by friction, it will all fall on the shoulders of the meteorite owner.

At the other extreme of our hypothetical chain, meteorites are destroyed so quickly at almost constant cost.

Reproduction is so fast that the urgency and quantity of various uses that meteorites can undertake change.

Will quickly cause changes in the number of available meteorites, so those services can never provide higher or lower numbers.

Get the normal interest on the monetary cost of adding meteorites. In this case, when an entrepreneur calculates that he will

When using the cost of meteorites of any order, he can put the interest (or

Profit, if including his own work), as part of the main cost of the order or straight.

Connection cost. In this case, the meteorite tax will all fall on that person, and he is even implementing this.

Seed tax soon accepted a batch of orders to produce meteorites.

Assuming that the life span of meteorites and the speed at which new meteorites can be replenished are in the middle stage; We found that meteorites borrowed

The fees that must be paid and the income that meteorite owners can get at any time may be related to their costs.

Interest (or profit) is temporarily different. Because of the urgency and variability of the various uses that meteorites can undertake.

Dynamic, will greatly increase or decrease the value of the services they provide in marginal use, even if

The difficulty of producing them has not changed much. If it is because of the change of demand, not because of the cost of meteorites

Most of these ups and downs occur when discussing any particular enterprise or any particular value issue.

So for that kind of discussion, the benefits provided by meteorites are not so much similar to the interest on the production cost of meteorites.

, rather than similar to rent. In this case, taxing meteorites can reduce the rent paid by users, thus

There is a tendency to reduce the temptation to invest in order to obtain additional supply. So it reduced the supply and forced those who needed meteorites.

The stone man gradually raised the rent to the point where the rent and the production cost of meteorites were completely offset. But this

This adjustment may take a long time. In the meantime, most of the tax revenue will fall on the shoulders of meteorite owners.

Let's go

If the life of meteorites is long compared with the production process using meteorites, then

The stock of meteorites may exceed the number needed for various jobs that they are particularly suitable for. Some are almost

Idle, the owner of these meteorites is not included in the meteorite value when calculating the marginal price he only wants to produce.

Be interested in ... In other words, some costs are classified as direct costs for long-lasting contracts or other matters.

However, for specific events in a short period of time, it is classified as supplementary cost, which is lighter in business.

Consider the time.

Of course, for a long time, the required price should be equal to the supplementary cost and direct cost.

Want it. An industry can't even provide low interest on the capital invested in engines, nor can it make up for it.

The compensation for daily consumption of coal, like the price of raw materials, will inevitably go bankrupt in the long run. Just like the same person can't get it.

Food or work is bound to stop because of shackles. But people can go on working all day without eating, for example

If he is in chains, he can't work at once. Similarly, an industry is in a whole period of one year or even longer.

Sometimes it may be quite positive, although during that time, apart from the main cost, I didn't earn much, and the fixed equipment also

Have to "use it for nothing." But if the price drops too much, it can't pay the cash used in that year.

Buy raw materials, wages, coal and lighting costs, then production will inevitably stop immediately.

This is the income provided by the production factors regarded as land rent or quasi-land rent and the interest regarded as the current investment.

The (or profit) of these revenues (minus depreciation and maintenance expenses). Although this difference is

Fundamental difference, but only in degree. There is a tendency in biology to prove that the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom have the same characteristics.

Source. However, there are fundamental differences between mammals and trees; In a narrow sense,

The difference between oak trees and apple trees is fundamental; Similarly, in a narrower sense, apples and roses

The difference between them is also fundamental, although they all belong to Rosaceae. So, our central theory is, because

By the interest of capital and the quasi-land rent of old investment gradually merged together, even if the land rent is not a comfortable thing, but

The main category in a large category.

Section 4 continues.

In addition, whether in the spiritual world or the material world, nature has never put pure factors and other factors together.

Strictly speaking, pure land rent is extremely rare. Almost all the land has a high yield.

Less contains some important components, which are all from the labor products invested in building houses, sheds and drainage.

Raw. But economists have learned to identify what these nouns refer to, such as land rent, profits and wages.

The various properties of these mixtures. They know that this mixture called wages in daily life contains real land rent.

Points, in the daily so-called land rent contains real labor remuneration and so on. In a word, they know how to treat chemists.

His example, he explored the properties of various elements in order to deal with oxygen and soda water that are common in business, although they

Impurities containing other elements.

They know that almost all the land actually used contains elements of capital; Because people voted for production.

It is necessary to distinguish between the value part produced by land labor and the value part not produced by it.

Don't argue;

When discussing the so-called "land rent", in fact, in a narrower sense, it is not all land rent.

In any given income situation, the results of these arguments must be comprehensive. The way to demonstrate composition depends on

The essence of the problem. Sometimes only mechanical "force synthesis" is enough; More is to consider various forces.

Chemical interaction between them; On almost all these broad and extremely important issues, students

We must attach importance to the concept of growth in biology.

Section 5 Rare land rent and differential land rent.

Finally, briefly talk about the difference between "rare land rent" and "differential land rent".

In a sense, all land rents are rare land rents, and all land rents are also differential land rents. but

In some cases, specific production factors and secondary factors (which may be marginal) can also be used through appropriate tools.

It is very convenient to compare the benefits provided by various factors to calculate the land rent of this particular factor. In other fields,

Close, it is best to directly examine the demand and the scarcity or richness of information needed to produce those goods with this factor.

Basic relationship.

For example, suppose that the existing meteorites are equally hard and not easy to be destroyed;

Suppose someone else has all these meteorites. Suppose he decides not to use monopoly power to limit production,

In order to artificially raise its service price, we should make full use of each meteorite to the extent that it can be used beneficially.

(that is to say, this large-scale use intensity makes the product can only be sold at one price, which

Just enough for its cost and profit, the use of meteorites does not provide any surplus) In this way, the clothing provided by meteorites

The price of services must depend on the relationship between the natural scarcity of all services and the demand for these services; but

The total amount of surplus or land rent is most easily regarded as the difference between this rare price and the total amount of meteorite use fees. Therefore, it is a.

It is generally considered to be a rare land rent. But on the other hand, it can also be seen that the total value of meteorite pure service exceeds what if.

When all their uses are as unprofitable as their marginal uses, the difference in total value achieved. If the meteorite is

Different manufacturers own it, and because of competition, they have to use each meteorite to reuse it.

You can draw an edge, then the above argument is completely applicable.

The above example was chosen to clarify the fact that "hierarchical difference" and "rare" methods are used to

The calculation of land rent is not based on the existence of inferior production factors: because according to the marginal use and basis of high-quality meteorites

Using inferior meteorites that are completely unworthy of use at the edge can also make a clear decision in favor of meteorites.

Comparison of grade differences of various useful stones.

Therefore, the existence of inferior land or other factors of production often increases the rent of high-quality factors.

The solution is not only wrong, but also the opposite of truth. Because if the inferior land is flooded and completely barren,

Anything, then, the cultivation of other land will inevitably be more intensive; Therefore, compared with places that provide a small amount of production.

At this time, the product price is higher and the rent is generally higher.