1. Four Great Inventions
Papermaking was invented in the Western Han Dynasty and improved in Cai Lun in the Eastern Han Dynasty. The three great inventions of printing, compass and gunpowder began long before the Song Dynasty, but they were only completed and developed in the Song Dynasty. It represents the outstanding achievements of natural science and technology in Song Dynasty. The four great inventions are the highest crystallization of China's ancient scientific and technological achievements, which have made great contributions to China's cultural undertakings and even the progress of the world and the development of world culture, and are an important symbol of China becoming one of the four ancient civilizations.
2. Mathematics
The multiplication table was invented in the Spring and Autumn Period. The Pythagorean Theorem in the early years of the Western Zhou Dynasty recorded in The Book of Balance Calculation of the Zhou Dynasty was 500 years earlier than that in the West. Nine Chapters Arithmetic appeared in the Western Han Dynasty. In the Southern Dynasties, Zu Chongzhi's pi was more than 1 100 years earlier than that in Europe, and his mathematical monograph "Zhuanshu" became the teaching material of Korea and Japan in the Tang Dynasty and the Middle Ages.
3. Astronomical Calendar and Earth Science
The Xia dynasty began to have a calendar. During the Shang Dynasty, there were the earliest solar and lunar eclipses in the world. In the Spring and Autumn Period, the earliest record of Halley's Comet was 6 13 BC. Shi Gan Xing Jing in the Warring States Period is the earliest astronomical work in the world. But also determine the season of the year. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, there was the Classic of Zhou Parallel Calculations, and in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Heng invented the seismograph and the armillary sphere. Astronomers and monks in the Tang Dynasty presided over the first meridian length measurement in the world. In the Northern Song Dynasty, Shen Kuo created the "Qi Twelve Calendars". In Yuan Dynasty, Guo Shoujing's Chronological Calendar became the most advanced calendar in the world at that time, and he also presided over an unprecedented astronomical survey.
4. Medicine
There were branches of medicine in the Warring States period; The famous doctor Bian Que proposed four diagnoses; The pathological theory put forward in Huangdi Neijing laid the foundation for the development of ancient medicine. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Zhongjing wrote Treatise on Febrile Diseases, which laid the foundation of TCM therapeutics. Hua Tuo not only created Wu Qin Opera, but also invented Ma Feifen, which initiated general anesthesia in the history of world medicine. There were medical schools in the Tang Dynasty with fine disciplines. Tang Herbal Medicine is the first pharmacopoeia compiled and promulgated by the state in the world. Sun Simiao is the author of Qian Jin Fang. Li Shizhen's Compendium of Materia Medica in Ming Dynasty is a great scientific work with both summary and creativity.
5. Agronomy
The Book of Qi Yao Min written by Jia Sixie in the Northern Wei Dynasty is the earliest and most complete agricultural book in China. Xu Guangqi's Encyclopedia of Agricultural Administration in the late Ming Dynasty has high scientific value.
6. Architecture
During the Warring States period, Lu built houses, bridges and improved production tools, and invented many things, which was respected as the founder by later carpenters. Zhao Zhouqiao, designed and built by Li Chun, a craftsman of Sui Dynasty, is the oldest stone arch bridge in the world. Chang 'an in the Tang Dynasty was large in scale, neat in layout and magnificent in architecture. Qin Changcheng starts from Lintao in the west and Liaodong in the east; Ming Great Wall starts from Yalu River in the east and ends at Jiayuguan in the west. The Great Wall of Wan Li is magnificent and one of the greatest projects in the world. In the Ming Dynasty, Beijing was a masterpiece of ancient urban architecture in China, with neat layout and gorgeous architecture.
7. Others
Shen Kuo's masterpiece Meng Qian Bi Tan reflects the achievements of scientific and technological innovation in the Northern Song Dynasty and is known as "the coordinate in the history of science in China". Tiangong Kaiwu, written in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, is known as the "encyclopedia of China arts and crafts in the 17th century". In addition, Du Shi, Ma Jun, Huang Daopo and other skilled craftsmen also made many inventions.
think
(1) Political Thought: The main body of the history of ancient thought is political thought, and there are three main kinds of governing thoughts:
The most influential Confucianism: Confucius is the founder of Confucianism, and "benevolence" is the core of its ideological system. It advocates maintaining slavery by easing class contradictions. However, in the turbulent era of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Confucius thought was not adopted by the rulers because of its inadaptability.
During the Warring States period, Mencius critically inherited Confucius' theory and developed it into the theory of "benevolent government", the core content of which is "people are precious", which is the essence of democracy in ancient political thought.
After the unification of Qin Dynasty, Confucian thought was hit hard by burning books and burying Confucianism. Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty accepted Dong Zhongshu's thought of "great unification" and "ousting a hundred schools of thought and respecting Confucianism alone" to meet the needs of autocratic monarchy, and Confucianism gradually became the orthodox thought in China's feudal society.
During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, with the unprecedented strengthening of feudal monarchy, the dominant position of Confucianism began to be impacted, and Huang Zongxi's anti-feudal thoughts with democratic colors, such as opposing monarchy and advocating applying what he has learned, appeared. In modern times, with the widespread spread of bourgeois democratic thought, Confucianism was further impacted.
The New Culture Movement pointed the finger at Confucianism, which shook its orthodox position. Legalists advocate the idea of "rule of law". The so-called "rule of law" means that people's thoughts and actions are unified by law, so as to govern the country well.
Han Feizi, a master of legalism in the pre-Qin period, advocated the implementation of "rule of law" and the establishment of a monarchy and centralized country. This theory was used by the King of Qin to seize power and became the theoretical basis for him to destroy the six countries and establish an autocratic system. Due to severe punishment, the Qin Dynasty died short-lived. After Qin and Han Dynasties, Legalism disappeared as a school, but the idea of attaching importance to the role of law and emphasizing absolute monarchy was inherited by successive dynasties.
Taoist thought of "governing by doing nothing": At the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, in the face of great social changes, Laozi completed a leap from the concept of ghosts and gods to "Tao". He advocated "governing by doing nothing" and advised rulers not to impose their will on society, but to conform to the current situation and people's hearts, so as to govern the world. After the Qin and Han Dynasties, whenever troubled times subsided and the people were in urgent need of rest, the idea of "governing by doing nothing" was taken seriously. For example, primary schools in the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, the early years of the Tang Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty all embodied the spirit of "governing by doing nothing" to a certain extent. This is the reason why Laozi's thought has been of great charm for more than two thousand years.
② Religion
Taoism: It appeared in the middle and late Eastern Han Dynasty. However, because of its messy teachings, it is far less attractive than Buddhism and less popular than Confucianism, so it is always difficult to become a climate.
Buddhism: It was introduced into the Central Plains of China in the Western Han Dynasty and gradually spread in China in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, Buddhism became increasingly popular in China due to long-term war and social unrest and the advocacy of rulers. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, in order to strengthen ideological rule, rulers vigorously advocated religion and respected foreign religions. However, due to the split between Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism, the dispute between Buddhism and imperial power, the dispute between Buddhism and Taoism, and the conflict between Buddhism and landlords' economic interests, Buddhism did not really become the state religion of China.
(3) Philosophical thoughts
With the continuous improvement of people's understanding of nature in production practice, China's profound philosophy is also developing. Thinkers such as Xunzi, Wang Chong, Fan Zhen, Liu Yuxi, Liu Zongyuan and Wang Fuzhi inherited and developed materialism in the process of fighting idealism, leaving outstanding cultural heritage for the Chinese nation.
education
The development of ancient education is the result of economic development. But mainly for the needs of the ruling class politics.
In the Spring and Autumn Period, Confucius, the greatest educator in ancient China, pioneered private schools, and his educational thoughts and methods had a far-reaching impact.
During the period of Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty, imperial academy was set up in the central government, and the local education system was initially established.
The imperial examination system in the Tang Dynasty promoted the development of education, the number of private schools increased and vocational education began to be established.
Education flourished in Song Dynasty, Wang Anshi carried out educational reform, and academies rose.
The educational system of schools at all levels in the Ming Dynasty showed a strong color of autocratic monarchy.
In the Qing Dynasty, ideological control and cultural autocracy were further strengthened, and academies gradually became government-run schools.
Historical science
In order to maintain the long-term stability of the ruler's position, all previous dynasties attached importance to historiography in order to draw lessons from history.
As early as in the slave society, there were specialized historians. In the early Tang Dynasty, a precedent was set for the establishment of a history museum presided over by the Prime Minister.
The Spring and Autumn Annals compiled by Confucius is the earliest complete and systematic historical work of China.
Sima Qian, who made the greatest contribution to the construction of national culture in the Western Han Dynasty, compiled Historical Records, which initiated the general history and biographical literature in China and represented the level of national culture in China at that time. Han Shu written by Ban Gu in the Eastern Han Dynasty is the first biographical chronology of China.
The Tang Dynasty attached importance to historiography and "took history as a mirror". Of the twenty-four existing histories, eight were written in the Tang Dynasty. Liu Zhiji's Shi Tong is China's first monograph on historical criticism. Du You's General Code is the earliest general history of laws and regulations in China.
The largest existing chronological history book in China is Zi Tong Zhi Jian edited by Sima Guang in the Northern Song Dynasty, which is the first chronological general history in China and a model of ancient collective compilation.
literature
Social existence determines social consciousness, and literature has the most distinctive characteristics of the times.
The Book of Songs in the Spring and Autumn Period is the glorious starting point of China literature. Some of these poems express the strong demand of slaves to resist oppression. The appearance of Chu Ci in the Warring States Period is the great liberation of ancient poetry. Qu Yuan's Lisao expresses the patriotic feelings that the author hopes to strengthen the reform of Chu State.
Fu is a prose poem evolved from Chu Ci in the Western Han Dynasty. It reflects the luxurious life of the ruling class and lacks substantive life content. Historical Records represents the highest achievement of prose in the Western Han Dynasty.
In the Han Dynasty, Yuefu was set up, and people were sent to collect folk songs, which were processed into Yuefu poems, some of which exposed the official extortion of the people.
During the Three Kingdoms, the Jin Dynasty and the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the rule of the gentry was decadent, and Tao Yuanming hated the corruption in the officialdom. He wrote pastoral poems "Peach Blossom Spring" and "Peach Blossom Spring Preface", which became the eternal swan song. The folk songs "Chile Song" and "Mulan Ci" of northern nomadic people reflect the era of national integration.
Tang poetry is rich and colorful, and it is a vivid Tang Shi, which constitutes the peak in the history of literature. Li Bai's poems in the prosperous Tang Dynasty praised the great rivers and mountains of the motherland. Du Fu's poems are a mirror of turbulent times before and after An Shi Rebellion. Bai Juyi was known as the "people's poet" for exposing the evils of the feudal rulers in the late Tang Dynasty and sympathizing with the working people.
The economic development and urban prosperity in Song Dynasty promoted the prosperity of Ci. Song Ci is another monument in the history of China literature after Tang Poetry. Before and after the Jin Dynasty destroyed the Northern Song Dynasty, Li Qingzhao's ci style was completely different. During the confrontation between Song and Jin Dynasties, Lu You's ci strongly demanded the reunification of the motherland. Xin Qiji's ci shows his nostalgia for his native land in the north and his patriotic enthusiasm for resisting gold. The creative achievements of Xin Qiji and Lu You mark the peak of Song Ci.
Guan Hanqing's Yuan Zaju reveals the darkness of feudal rule and has strong reality.
The most successful literature in Ming and Qing dynasties is classical novels, which clearly embodies the characteristics of the times in the late feudal society, criticizes feudal ethics and exposes feudal system.
art
Calligraphy, painting, grottoes and drama are mainly influenced by politics, economy or religion.
Calligraphy has become an art since the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, and developed in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, with the appearance of the ancient calligrapher Wang Xizhi. The Sui and Tang Dynasties became increasingly hot, and the works of famous calligraphers Yan Zhenqing and Liu Gongquan were called "Yan Gu", each with its own style. Calligraphy became a favorite art of literati in Song and Yuan Dynasties. "Wu Pai" in Ming Dynasty is a collection of poems, books and paintings.
The silk paintings of Mawangdui Han Tomb in Changsha are rich in color, smooth and meticulous. Religious paintings were very popular in the Three Kingdoms, the Jin Dynasty and the Southern and Northern Dynasties.
In the Tang Dynasty, Yan and Wu Daozi mainly used figure painting. Driven by the development of urban handicrafts and commerce, the painting technology in Song and Yuan Dynasties became mature. Zhang Zeduan's The Riverside Scene at Qingming Festival is an immortal masterpiece in China's art history. Zhao Meng's cheek paintings in Yuan Dynasty were called "masterpieces". Wu Pai appeared in Suzhou in the Ming Dynasty. The painting of "Eight Eccentrics in Yangzhou" in Qing Dynasty broke through the old rules and created a new scene.
From Wei and Jin Dynasties to Sui and Tang Dynasties, feudal rulers dug a large number of grottoes for the purpose of maintaining feudal rule and spreading Buddhism, among which Yungang Grottoes, Longmen Grottoes and Mogao Grottoes were the most famous, and they showed exquisite carving, sculpture and mural art respectively.
During the Song and Jin Dynasties, there were various theatrical performances such as burlesque and singing opera, which developed into Yuanqu in the Yuan Dynasty. Tang Xianzu's Peony Pavilion was the most famous in the Ming Dynasty, while Hong's Palace of Eternal Life and Kong's Peach Blossom Fan were the most famous in the Qing Dynasty.