history of literature
The literary achievements in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period are mainly reflected in prose and poetry, while the content pays more attention to the description of history.
First, the achievements in prose.
Oracle Bone Inscriptions in Yin Ruins can be said to be the bud of pre-Qin prose. It briefly recorded the divination characters in Yin and Shang dynasties on the tortoise shell of animal bones. Shangshu (also called "Book Classics") is the earliest compilation of historical documents in ancient times. Yu Shu, Xia Shu, Shangshu and Zhou Shu were collectively called Shu in the Warring States Period and renamed Shangshu in the Han Dynasty, that is, the book of ancient times. From Yao Shun to Qin Mugong, most of the records are the emperors' oaths, orders and instructions recorded by historians, which are of great ancient historical value. Shangshu can also be said to be China's first collection of essays, which was later called one of the Five Classics of Confucianism. His article is complex in structure and concise in wording. But about the author, there is no conclusion at present.
Most of the 5,000 words in Laozi are written in verse, with concise and vivid language and profound implications.
The Spring and Autumn Annals compiled by Confucius in the Spring and Autumn Period is the earliest chronicle of China. It summarizes some important historical events through extremely concise words and expresses the author's praise and criticism of these events. Chunqiu plays an exemplary role in the compilation of later history.
The Analects of Confucius was written in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and was recorded by Confucius' students and their retranslators. This is a book that records the words and deeds of Confucius and his students. The Analects of Confucius covers many aspects such as philosophy, politics, economy, education, literature and art, and is the most important classic of Confucianism. From the form of expression, The Analects of Confucius is a model of biographical prose, and its language is concise, vivid and poetic.
Zuo Zhuan was written in the early Warring States Period, and some scholars believe that it was written by Zuo Qiuming. It is different from Biography of Ram and Biography of Gu Liang, which are devoted to the interpretation of Spring and Autumn Annals. This is a vivid and true chronicle of China. This book is not only rich in language and vivid in dialogue, but also vivid in description of historical events, especially wars. Liu Zhiji, a famous historical critic in Tang Dynasty, highly praised the narrative of Zuo Zhuan as "outstanding in ancient and modern times". Although Zuo Zhuan is not a Confucian classic, it was written by self-learners and attached to Chunqiu, which was gradually regarded as a classic by Confucianism.
Second, achievements in poetry.
During the Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period, folk songs were very popular. Zuozhuan, Guoyu and Zhuzi often quote folk songs. Due to the popularity and development of ballads, the poems in the Warring States period have shown different styles. In the Book of Songs before the Spring and Autumn Period, "Elegance" is the formal elegant music of Wang Ji in the Western Zhou Dynasty, "Ode" is the dance lyrics of the upper class ancestral temple sacrifice, and "National Style" is a folk song. The existence of the word "Xi" was one of the criteria to distinguish the court and folk lyrics at that time. It is often used as an auxiliary word in Guofeng, but it is rare in Daya, Xiaoya, Zhou Song, Truffle and Shangsong. It turns out that the ancient pronunciation of the word "Xi" is "ah", which is a common auxiliary word in ancient folk songs.
In the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, lively lyrics with different syntactic lengths appeared in folk songs, instead of using four neat sentences as in "National Wind". At this time, folk songs are often accompanied by music. In the music accompaniment, lively lyrics of different lengths are sung, which is very touching. Jing Ke set out from the state of Yan, and when he went to Qin to stab the king of Qin, he passed by Yishui. Gao Jianli played the bamboo stringed instrument Zhu, and Jing Ke sang: "The wind is rustling and the water is cold, and the strong man is gone forever." Jing Ke's songs are in harmony with the tone played by Gao Jianli. It is said that the first one is "the sound of variation" ("variation" is a sad tone), and everyone cries when they hear it; After the "Feather Sound is Constant" ("Feather Sound" is an impassioned tone), everyone listened, their eyes widened and their hair seemed to stand on end. This is a southern folk song with beautiful twists and turns.
It is said that when Chu Qing assisted Wang, Hubei gentlemen were rowing in the new wave. As soon as the bells and drums stopped, Vietnamese paddlers paddled and sang a 32-syllable song in Vietnamese. Because E Jun didn't understand it, he asked someone to translate it in Chu, which became such a Chu saying: "What is the evening? Let's go to the middle of the mainland. " What day is today? Together with the prince. I'm ashamed. I don't deserve my humble opinion. My heart is stubborn and uneasy, and I know the prince. There are trees in the mountains and branches in the trees. I'm glad you don't know. "
The representative achievement of poetry in this period is Chu Ci.
The name of Chu Ci was first seen in historical records? Biography of Zhang Tang. It can be seen that this name already existed in the early Han Dynasty. Its original meaning, at that time, generally referred to Chu ci, and later became a proper noun, referring to the new poetic style represented by Qu Yuan's creation in the Warring States period. This poetic style has a strong regional cultural color. For example, Huang, a poet in the Song Dynasty, said in "On the East View" that "everyone writes Chu language, Chu sound, Chu land and makes Chu things famous". At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Liu Xiang collected the works of Qu Yuan and Song Yu, as well as the works of Han people imitating this poetic style. The title is "Song of the South". This is another far-reaching poetry collection in ancient China after The Book of Songs.
Because Qu Yuan's Li Sao is a masterpiece of Chu Ci, Chu Ci is also called "Sao" or "Sao Style". In addition to Li Sao, the main works of Songs of Chu include Emperor Taiyi, King in the Cloud, Xiang Jun, Mrs. Xiang, Priestess of Death, Shao Siming, Dong Jun, Hebo, Shan Gui and National Mourning.
trait
China's ancient Chinese characters had an artistic flavor in the Yin and Zhou Dynasties. Inscriptions on Oracle bones in the Yin Dynasty were not only carved with a knife, but also written with a pen. The inscriptions on bronzes in the Western Zhou Dynasty should be written first and then cast. Many of these works have beautiful fonts, although they were written by unknown calligraphers at that time.
At the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, people began to consciously make characters artistic. For example, at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period, wuyue, Cai, Chu and other countries often carved fine arts fonts on weapons for ceremonial purposes. Just contrary to the scribbled fonts at that time, we tried to be neat and beautiful, or added some dots to the strokes, or pretended to be tortuous, or added bird-shaped decoration to the strokes. This is the origin of "bird print", "insect print" or "seedling print". 1965, the sword of Gou Jian, the King of Yue, was found in the Chu tomb in Jiangling, Hubei. The body of the sword is covered with diamond-shaped dark lines, engraved with the words "King Yue Jian is shallow and self-sufficient". 1977, a bronze sword was found in the Warring States Tomb of Heshimiao, Yiyang County, Hunan Province. On both sides, there is an inscription "Yue Wang Zhou Sentence (that is, Zhu Sentence) self-propelled sword", all of which are in this bird seal script.
During the Warring States period, characters were frequently and widely used among the people, and simple and scribbled fonts were widely popular. Not only has the font changed significantly, but the phenomenon of variant characters between different regions is also very prominent. At that time, the characters on seals, coins and pottery, the lettering on bronze weapons, the names of workers carved on bronzes, and bamboo slips and silk books unearthed in recent years were all scrawled fonts, which were obviously different from the neat inscriptions on bronze ritual vessels. Generally speaking, the neat fonts on important bronzes at that time still followed the traditional writing methods since the Western Zhou Dynasty, while the scribbled fonts on ordinary daily utensils were created by people all over the world at that time. Due to the local people's free creation, the writing is very inconsistent, even the radicals are different, resulting in the phenomenon of "variant characters" in the Seven Countries, just as Xu Shen said in the Han Dynasty.
There are no proper nouns in the fonts in the Warring States period, but in actual use, neat and scrawled fonts have been formed. One kind of neatness is the origin of seal script; Scribbled can be called "grass seal script" or "ancient official script", which is the transition from seal script to official script. Take Qin Wei as an example. When Shang Yang reformed, the inscription on Shang Yang Fang Sheng was neatly written, which was a traditional seal script since the Western Zhou Dynasty. However, the lettering on "Daliang Jujube is upset" is very hasty and belongs to Cao Zhuan font. The two jade seals (unearthed from the Qin Tomb at Fenghuang Mountain in Jiangling) in the Zhao Haoqi period of the Qin Dynasty are all written with "Lingxian", one is Xiao Zhuan, and the other is Cao Zhuan, which is close to official script. The radical of "Lingxian" has been written as "three points of water" instead of "water". At the end of the Warring States Period, the inscription "Gao Nv and Shi Tongquan" in Qin Dynasty was already official script, and the word "female" and "jujube" were both official scripts. Before Qin Shihuang's reunification, in fact, Xiao Zhuan and Li Shu already existed. The inscription of "New Tiger Emblem" is Xiao Zhuan, while the silk book "The Way to Be an Official" unearthed in Yunmeng Sleeping Tiger Land in Hubei Province is close to that of Li Shu. The biggest difference between official script and seal script is to change the round pen into Fang Bi and the arc into a straight line, which can speed up the writing.
During the Warring States period, many important bronze inscriptions used neat seal script, paying attention to beauty. For example, the chimes made in South Korea in the early Warring States period were all marked with squares, and neat seal characters were written in the squares, which were very beautiful. The bronze inscriptions unearthed from the tomb of King Zhongshan in Pingshan, Hebei Province are also neat seal scripts. This is the origin of calligraphy. Later, Qin Shihuang also used this method to unify the national characters. In addition to the extensive use of official script, many stone carvings and important bronzes are written in seal script, which is also neat and beautiful. According to legend, Li Si is a calligrapher named Gong Zhuan, who wrote many stone carvings and twelve questions about "Li Zhong Ren Yan" (water mirror? He Zhu cited Wei Heng's Syria and India). Since then, as a calligraphy art and application tool, Chinese characters have developed along their own path.
Artistic aspect
The artworks in the Warring States period can be roughly divided into four categories: first, bronzes (inlaid with gold, silver and bronze mirrors), second, sculptures, third, paintings, and fourth, other handicrafts, including lacquerware, jade and pottery.
In the archaeological discoveries in China in the past 50 years, a large number of works of art from the Warring States period, including bronzes, crockery, jade, lacquerware and pottery, have been unearthed in Liyucun, Hunyuan, yi county, Tangshan, Huixian, Jixian, Luoyang Jincun, Linzi, Shandong, Shouxian, Anhui and Changsha, Hunan. From these artworks, people can get a glimpse of the artistic achievements in the Warring States period.
The first is the achievement in bronze ware.
From Zhao wares unearthed in Hunyuan, Yan wares unearthed in Tangshan, Hebei, Wei wares unearthed in Huixian, Koryo wares unearthed in Jincun, Luoyang, Cai wares and Chu wares unearthed in Shouxian, Anhui, and Chyi Chin wares unearthed in various places, the manufacturing time is mostly from the end of the Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, but there are basically some similarities: First, the shapes, decorative themes and decorative methods are similar. Decorative parts tend to be three-dimensional realistic animal sculptures, patterns are the most common one, but there are also many different ways to deal with them. Secondly, in the casting process, the general carving patterns may have been cast by wax mold method, and the pattern was printed on the original mold of bronze ware by simple pressing method (not on the pattern), and the composition of copper and tin also had a new proportion. Third, the style of bronzes is gorgeous and magnificent, especially in gold and silver inlays. Metals such as gold, silver and copper or minerals such as turquoise, crystal, jade and agate are filled or embedded in the gaps of bronze patterns, resulting in multicolor effects.
Bronze mirrors in the Warring States Period were found in Chu State and its adjacent areas. Round bronze mirrors (a few are square) can be polished on the front, and the back has organized and complete patterns. These patterns are usually Yun Leiwen or fantasy animal patterns that rotate vertically on a dense background pattern. Due to different reflections, the upper and lower layers show a contrast effect. The bronze mirror pattern in the Warring States Period is one of the typical patterns in China. In order to make the mirror smooth and delicate, a small amount of lead was often added to the alloy in the copper frame in the Warring States period, so the pattern on the back was particularly neat and clear.
Secondly, achievements in sculpture.
Sculpture works in the Warring States period had the ability to express trends and began to depict facial expressions. For example, the wooden figurines unearthed in Changsha and the bronze statue of Hu Nv unearthed in Luoyang. Another example is the monkey-shaped and parrot-shaped bronze ornaments unearthed in Changzhi watershed, Shanxi Province, various bronze statues of squatting and kneeling unearthed in Jincun, Luoyang, and a pair of frogs about to jump into the water washed with gold and silver interlaced moire and animal patterns, all of which show the real state of action. There are also gold and silver animal heads and dragon heads unearthed in Jincun, Luoyang, and animal head-shaped ornaments unearthed in Huixian, all of which are exaggerated and decorated with different colors of metals, achieving very realistic results.
Third, achievements in painting.
"Han Feizi" records that the painter spent three years painting a basket for Zhou Jun. Under certain light, you can see "dragons, snakes, beasts, chariots and horses, and everything in the painting", which is obviously the main theme of decorative paintings in the Warring States period. Before writing Tian Wen, Qu Yuan, a poet of Chu, had already seen the fantastic mythological pictures of "heaven and earth, mountains and rivers, immortals, strange wonders, ancient saints and monsters" in the murals of Chuwang Temple and Gongqing Ancestral Temple. Lu Ban, a famous craftsman in ancient times, drew an image of "I feel careful" with his feet, which he knew he was ugly and didn't want people to see. The painter of the State of Qi worshiped the king and painted a nine-stage platform for the king of Qi, so he could not go home. He painted a portrait of his wife to comfort himself, so that his wife was taken away by the king of Qi. Qi thinks it is difficult to draw familiar dogs and horses, and it is also difficult to draw ghosts that people have never seen before. This shows the development of painting art at that time.
Among the paintings in the Warring States period, the silk painting "Dragon and Phoenix Girl" unearthed in Changsha is representative. There are trees, Mercedes-Benz cars and horses, hunting and other scenes on the lacquer tomb unearthed in Changsha. It shows the composition ability of painting art at that time. Other scenes, such as gold and silver hunting pots, chariots and animals on bronze medals, also showed the general level of painting at that time to some extent. Other works include "Bronze Pots with Warlike Patterns Unearthed from Land and Water Attacks in Jixian County", which is hidden in the Forbidden City, with music playing, archery, court scenes and nine battle scenes; There is also a bronze sword engraved with Le Yan's hunting unearthed in Huixian.
Fourth, other technological achievements.
The craft level of lacquerware unearthed in the Warring States period is also very outstanding. In addition to the lacquer case, lacquer shield, bird dish and three-phoenix and two-phoenix dish of the characters in the above-mentioned painting stories, the painted lacquer paintings and poems unearthed in Changsha are the earliest and most complete works. It is very common to use flax and bamboo as tires, with uniform and clean paint and bright colors (red and black). The pattern composition is extremely ingenious, the lines are as thin as hair, or symmetrical and thick, and the description technology has reached a high level. Lacquer patterns and bronze mirror patterns in the Warring States period have the same important position.
In addition, jade craft has also made outstanding achievements. Jade ornaments unearthed in Jincun, Luoyang, jade bi and various animal shapes, carved jade inlaid beads, silver hooks and jade parrots unearthed in Dahuang and Huixian are the best in ancient jade crafts. The discovery of semi-finished products of Jincun jade craft can help us understand its making process. But the ancient jade-making technology is still a mystery to people today.
Dress
Men's clothing in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty is similar to that in the Western Zhou Dynasty, and generally follows the clothing system of the Shang Dynasty, with only slight changes. The style of clothes is slightly looser than that of Shang Dynasty. Clothing styles are characterized by right crotch, narrow sleeves, ankle length, multiple belts, and some are long and seated. There are two kinds of sleeves, the collar is generally rectangular, but there are no buttons yet. Usually tied to the waist, and some still hang jade ornaments. At that time, there were mainly two kinds of belts: one was made of silk fabric, which was called "big belt" or "gentry belt". Another kind of belt is made of leather, which is called "belt".
Generally speaking, stone is a kind of woven clothes with narrow sleeves. This kind of clothing has a rectangular collar, and the collar, sleeves, lapels and collars are all decorations of fate. Shoulder shawl, waist belt, a Yu Pei hanging on the right.
However, during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the crowns, hats and clothes of nobles were different from those of ordinary scholars. They wear crowns on their heads, tassels hang down from the lower sides of their jaws, and the braids on the back of their heads are pulled up and wrapped in the crowns; Wearing narrow-sleeved robes, belts and shoes. The Jade Man of Warring States, now treasured in the Palace Museum, is an official with a crown and wide sleeves.
In addition to Hu clothing, there was another clothing style in the Spring and Autumn Period, which was called "Deep Clothing". Deep clothing is a kind of clothing connected from top to bottom, which has great influence on society. Both men and women, civil and military positions, can wear deep clothes.
There were obvious changes in costumes during the Warring States period, and the most important thing was the popularity of Hu clothes. The so-called Hu fu is actually the costumes of ethnic minorities in the northwest, which is very different from the Bo-Dai Han nationality in Take off your coat, Central China. Generally, short coats, trousers and leather boots are thin and narrow, which is convenient for activities. The first person to change into this kind of clothing is King Wuling of Zhao, who can be said to be the earliest reformer in China's clothing history. The knee-length jacket is a major feature of Khufu, which was first used in the army, and later introduced to the people, becoming an ordinary costume.
scientific and technical payoffs
Establishment of "Five Elements Theory"
The understanding of "five elements" appeared in the late Western Zhou Dynasty. "History? Hong Fan called water, fire, wood, gold and earth "five elements" and realized that each line in the five elements has different attributes. He believes that "water is moist, fire is inflamed, wood is straight, gold is leather, and soil is the wall; Make it moist and salty, bitter on the inflammation, sour on the straight, pungent on the leather and sweet on the wall. " (See History of Western Zhou Dynasty), and Mandarin? Chyi Yu believes that "the earth and Jin Mu are in harmony with fire and water, and all things are born together". During the Warring States period, the theory of five elements began to be widely popular and combined with the theory of yin and yang. The theory of five elements reflects the mutual opposition and connection of various natural phenomena, and has a far-reaching impact on the scientific and technological concepts of later generations and the development of medicine and alchemy.
mathematics
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the earliest mathematical monograph Nine Chapters Arithmetic appeared in ancient China. According to Liu Hui's records, the nine-chapter arithmetic developed from the "nine numbers" in the pre-Qin period. The Qin dynasty violently burned books, which caused bad communication after the operation. Zhang Cang in the Western Han Dynasty (? -BC 152) and Geng Shouchang (BC 1 century) collected the remaining manuscripts and edited them into Nine Arithmetic Chapters.
Nine Chapters of Arithmetic includes nearly 100 general abstract formulas, solutions and 246 application problems, which belong to nine chapters: square field, millet, decline, few and wide, business, average loss, surplus and deficiency, equation and Pythagorean.
Among them, Fang put forward the area formulas of various polygons, circles and bows. The complete rules of the general division, subtraction, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions. The latter is 1400 years earlier than Europe. Shao introduced cholesky decomposition and cholesky decomposition, and the procedures are basically the same as today's. This is the earliest multi-digit and fractional root rule in the world. The chapter of profit and loss puts forward three kinds of profit and loss problems: profit and loss, profit and loss, and the solutions to some general problems that can be transformed into profit and loss through two assumptions. This is also the world's leading achievement, which has a great influence after it spread to the west. In the chapter of equations, linear equations are expressed by separation coefficient method, which is equivalent to current matrix; The direct division used to solve linear equations is consistent with the elementary transformation of matrices. This is the earliest solution of completely linear equations in the world. In the west, it was not until17th century that Leibniz put forward a complete law for solving linear equations. This chapter also introduces and uses negative numbers, and puts forward the addition and subtraction rules of positive and negative numbers, which are exactly the same as those in modern algebra. When solving linear equations, the multiplication and division of positive and negative numbers are actually performed. This is a great achievement in the history of world mathematics, which broke through the range of positive numbers for the first time and expanded the number system. Foreign countries did not realize negative numbers until the Yarlung Zangbo River in India in the seventh century.
People in this era can skillfully apply mathematical principles to urban architecture, land survey and tax collection. In 5 10 BC (the tenth year of the week), the princes of various countries were Zhou Jiancheng. Before starting work, full-time officials "count feet, count high, count low, measure thick, measure distance, measure time, count materials, consider materials, collect books and collect grain to serve the princes". That is to say, earthwork, labor, materials, including the length, width and height of the city, and even the round-trip mileage of labor forces in various countries and the amount of dry food needed are calculated accurately and thoughtfully, so the project can be completed ahead of schedule. This shows that people have mastered a wide range of mathematical knowledge at that time. In 548 BC (the 24th year of Zhou Lingwang), Sima Wuyan of Chu was ordered to rectify the military tax. Sima Wu accurately calculated different types of farmland and Shui Ze, and then determined the amount of military tax according to the income.
astronomy
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, people's astronomical knowledge has been quite rich.
The book Spring and Autumn Annals recorded solar and lunar eclipses very accurately. In 242 years, 37 eclipses were recorded, 30 of which were proved to be reliable. The earliest total solar eclipse occurred in Lu Yingong on February 22nd, 720 BC, which was earlier than the western record 135 years. According to the Spring and Autumn Annals, in the 14th year of Duke Wen of Lu (6 13 BC), a star entered the Beidou. Astronomers believe that this is the earliest record of Harley-Davidson snow in the world, more than 670 years earlier than in Europe. .
At about the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty, China already knew how to observe the sun's shadow with soil gauge and determine the time of winter solstice and summer solstice. Turn left recorded the solstice (winter solstice) two days later, once in Lu Xigong for five years (655 BC) and once in Zhao Gong for twenty years (522 BC), with an interval of 133 years. During this period, it recorded 48 leap months and lost a boudoir. * * There should be 49 leap months, which is the famous July leap month method in nineteen years. This is not only more accurate than the calendar of Shang dynasty, but also earlier than the application of this calendar in Europe 160 or 70 years.
During the Warring States Period, Gander, a Chu man, and Shishen, a Wei man, each wrote an astronomical work, which was later collectively called Shi Gan Xing Jing, the earliest astronomical work in the world. There are 800 stars recorded in the book, of which 12 1 has been located. The book also records the movements of the five planets.
machine
In terms of machinery, skilled craftsmen are outstanding representatives. Gong Bo was a native of Lu at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period. His surname is Gong Bo, and so is his first name. If the word, but also because of Lu Ban, hence the name Lu Ban. This kind of folk craftsman can not only build "palace pavilion", but also build siege and ship fighting equipment such as "ladder" and "hook" in the era of frequent offensive and defensive wars; Also, "chopping bamboo and wood thought it was a pheasant (magpie)" flew by wind. According to legend, he created "wooden chariots and horses" and grinders and mills, and people praised him as "the saint of machinery". Lu Ban had a great influence on later generations. For thousands of years, he has been recognized as the founder of woodworking, masonry, masonry and other craft departments.
In the Spring and Autumn Period, there was also a machine used to lift weights or draw water from deep wells, called orange (asphalt). The orange peel is in the shape of a long piece of wood supported horizontally on a high post beside a well or a canal. An empty bucket is hung on the front end of a long wood with a long rope, and a heavy object (such as a stone) is tied to the back end. Pull down the rope in front, and the bucket can fetch water; Then loosen your hands, because the back is heavy and the front is light, so you lift the bucket. This kind of machinery is much easier to lift water by hand, so it is widely used. In modern rural areas, oranges are still used to fetch water.
Weighing instrument is an instrument for weighing objects, which was invented earlier. Legend has it since Shun Di's time. There are two kinds of weighing instruments: equal arm scale (balance) and unequal arm scale. 1954 The wooden scale unearthed in Zuojiagongshan, Changsha during the Warring States Period was an equal-arm scale, while the bronze scale "Wang" unearthed in Shouxian, Anhui Province may be an unequal-arm scale. The principle on which the weighing instrument is based is the lever principle that the moments on both sides are equal to achieve balance. For an equal-arm scale (balance), the weights are equal to the weight of the object; For the unequal arm scale, the product of the weight and the heavy arm (the distance from the weight to the fulcrum) is equal to the product of the weight (thallium of the scale) and the force arm (the distance from the weight to the fulcrum). Mohist school once expounded the working principle of unequal arm scale. Mohist weighing arm is "Ben" and force arm is "Biao", and the weight of heavy objects is lighter than that of objects. In this regard, Mohism pointed out that if we want to "balance" this scale, we must "short the standard length", which shows that Mohism already knows the principle of leverage: weight x book = weight x standard. This is more than a century before Archimedes discovered the lever principle in the third century BC.
In addition, the utilization of lever machinery such as pulleys and axles appeared in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. It is said that Gong Bo once suggested that Ji Kangzi build a rotating mechanism to bury his mother. The rotating mechanism can be a pulley; In the ancient mining and metallurgy site of Tonglushan in Daye, the remains of hoisting ore with a hoist were also found.
build
The grand scale and technological progress of ancient buildings stand out in urban architecture and planning. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the building scale of the capital was more magnificent. Luoyang, the capital of Zhou Dynasty, is an irregular square with a length of 3,300 meters from north to south and a wall of nearly 3,000 meters from north. The main buildings are located in the south of central China, which is consistent with the descriptions of "Fang Jiuli" and "Central Palace" in Kao Gong Ji. There were thousands of families in the city of Fiona Fang during the Warring States Period. For example, there are 70,000 households in Linzi, Qi, which are divided into inner and outer cities. Xia Yan, the capital of Yan State, is also divided into an inner city and an outer city, which is 8,300 meters long from east to west and 4,000 meters long from north to south. The main buildings are arranged on the central axis of the city, becoming a complete architectural complex with clear primary and secondary, symmetrical left and right, and there are tombs and handicraft workshops in the city.
After the Spring and Autumn Period, tiles were more widely used in buildings. Qin also has bronze cast "full bars", which are used as beam-column joints and decorations.
The extensive application of wood structure and the high development of frame structure are the most prominent features of ancient architectural technology in China. No matter what kind of wood structure, the components are mainly tenon-mortise joints. There are three forms of mortise and tenon, silver ingot and tooth shape in the Warring States tombs in Changsha, which shows that this architectural structure was independently created by our ancestors.
water conservancy
During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, water conservancy experienced an unprecedented development climax. Water conservancy projects built in this period can be roughly divided into three categories: irrigation, canals and dikes. The construction of large-scale irrigation projects began in the late Spring and Autumn Period and flourished in the Warring States Period. The main projects include Shaopi, Zhangshui 12 Canal, Dujiangyan and Zheng Guoqu.
Shaobei (pí) is an ancient large-scale water storage irrigation project (now called reservoir). Located in the south of an feng, Shouxian County, Anhui Province, also known as Anfengtang. It was built at the end of 6th century BC by Sun Yin Shao, the monarch of Chu State. Shao Bei's design is very clever. It was built by using the local topographical features of high in the east, south and west and low in the north. "There are five doors in a vicious circle, and it breathes the stream." The vicious circle is about a hundred miles, and the farmland is nearly 10,000 hectares, benefiting the people.
Zhangshui No.12 Canal is a large-scale farmland irrigation canal built by Wei Ming Ximen Bao. Each canal is equipped with a sluice gate to adjust the water volume. Li Daoyuan said that "one source divides into twelve streams, all of which are suspended by sluice gates".
Dujiangyan is a world-famous large-scale irrigation project, located in guanxian, Sichuan Province. It was built by Li Bing and Shu Shou during the reign of Qin Zhao Haoqi (25 BC1year). The whole project consists of fish mouth, bottle mouth and flying sand weir, which has irrigation and flood control functions. After the completion of Dujiangyan, about 3 million mu of fertile land in Chengdu Plain has been irrigated, making it a land of abundance. It still plays an important role today.
In 246 BC, Zheng Guo, a Korean water conservancy engineer, designed and dug a city for the State of Qin. He "cut the river from Xifukou, Zhongshan, and from Shandong to the north, injecting more than 300 miles ... irrigating more than 40,000 hectares of brine, all of which are collected for one mu an hour". The success of the canal, "Guanzhong fertile field, no fierce year."
Medical science
Bian Que, known as the "master of pulse science", was born in this era.
Bian Que, formerly known as Qi. According to historical records? According to the biography of Bian Que Cang Gong, Bian Que once ran an inn, where Aaron Sangjun lived for more than ten years. He has been observing Bian Que, and they all know that the other party is not a fool. When Chang Sangjun was old, he decided to pass on Bian Que's medical skills. Chang Sangjun took the medicine out of his arms and gave it to Bian Que, and told him to drink it with water that never touched the ground. After 30 days, he can see the hidden things. At the same time, all the cheats were awarded to Bian Que. 30 days after Bian Que took the medicine according to his words, "he saw a man's wall. From this point, we can see the crux of the five internal organs, especially in the name of pulse diagnosis. " At this time, Bian Que can see people on the other side of the wall, which has the special function of seeing through objects. When you use this function to see a doctor, you can see through people's internal organs and know which internal organs this disease is. Since then, he began to practice medicine in Qi or Zhao under the name of "pulse diagnosis".
Bian Que used the method of combining acupuncture and medicine to "feel the pulse, look at the color, listen to the sound and write the shape", which brought Prince Guo back to life. He can predict the course and outcome of the disease, which can be seen from his three medical records of exhortation and treatment. Sima Qian praised Bian Que: "Bian Que is the leader of the party because of his medical skills and his wisdom in keeping numbers. Future generations are orderly and prosperous."
According to New Tang Book? According to the records of Yiwenzhi, Bian Que wrote two volumes of The Yellow Emperor's Eighty-one Difficult Classics. Difficult Classics is a book about pulse condition, meridians, viscera, diseases, acupoints, acupuncture and other issues in Neijing. The book begins with the difficulty of setting questions, which is divided into eighty-one difficulties, among which the sixty-ninth to eighty-one difficulties mainly discuss the application of acupuncture and its reinforcing and reducing methods. Difficult classics further enriched the content of Huangdi Neijing and had an important influence on the development of acupuncture in later generations.