Everyone knows Darwin's theory of evolution. However, only about 10% people know about Eve Theory, and less than 1% people have heard of Adam Theory. In the past fifteen years, "Adam Theory" and "Eve Theory" have been continuously demonstrated, supplemented and verified, and become the mainstream knowledge in the research field of molecular biology.
In 2007, CCTV released the TV series "Who is Eve". The film says: "Through our blood, we can find our ancestors through the time tunnel" and find that "we are all descendants of a pair of parents10.5 million years ago. They are veritable Adam and Eve. " These two sentences "note 1" basically sum up "Adam theory" and "Eve theory".
A, the password in the blood
A long time ago, people realized that there was a genetic relationship between parents and children, and tried to find the secret of this relationship from blood. There is a story in the traditional drama "Three Drops of Blood": Jin Xinshu, a county official, tried to identify the parent-child relationship by "father and son drop blood into the water". As a result, his father Zhou and his own son were separated alive, which is obviously a failed case. At the beginning of last century, Dr. Karl from Austria discovered that there are four blood types: A, B, O and AB, and determined the genetic law of blood types. This is the first time to confirm the genetic relationship contained in blood by scientific means. After scientists discovered the genetic DNA, human beings took a big step forward in understanding their own genetic secrets, and DNA-based paternity testing methods began to be established.
1. From the method of paternity test:
The relationship between parents and children's DNA: cells in all parts of human body contain the same gene, which is the carrier of genetic information, and the entity of genetic information is DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Most of human DNA is located in the nucleus, and the genetic information in the nucleus is contained in chromosomes. The child has 22 pairs of autosomes, one from his father and one from his mother. In addition, there is a pair of sex chromosomes: if it is a girl, her pair of sex chromosomes is XX, which comes from her father and mother respectively; If it is a boy, his pair of sex chromosomes is YX, Y chromosome comes from his father, and X chromosome comes from his mother. It can be seen that only boys can inherit their father's Y chromosome and pass it on to the next generation.
At present, there are three methods of paternity test.
Autosomal paternity test: Because half of the autosomes come from the father and half from the mother, the biological parents of the child can be determined in autosomal paternity test.
Y chromosome paternity test: In Y chromosome paternity test, only paternity test can be done. The identification of Y chromosome can not only identify the father-son relationship, but also identify the paternal relationship of more than ten generations. So, can you determine a farther paternal relationship? The answer was given more than ten years ago: yes.
Mitochondrial paternity test: There is cytoplasmic mitochondrial DNA (also called mDNA) outside the nucleus, which is a sign of maternal inheritance. There are also subtle changes in its heredity, so it can be used as an identification of maternal paternity, but it does not contain as much information as the Y chromosome.
What is the information in 2.2? DNA？
Blood type can be represented by A, B, O and AB, and DNA can also be represented by characters.
The transmission of DNA genetic information is responsible for the four bases arranged on DNA, and the four characters A, T, C and G represent these four bases. Through the complicated process of DNA sequence analysis, the characteristic sequences of DNA fragments can be separated from human DNA samples. Genetically speaking, it is the arrangement of these four traits in DNA that determines people's black and white fatness, height and even appearance and health. Each cell contains about 3 billion such characters, and it does take some time to fully understand them.
Parent-child relationship is based on the comparison of these characters. Each pair (two) of autosomes of a child comes from the father and one from the mother. Therefore, we can judge the parent-child relationship by comparing the DNA characteristic sequences of father, mother and child at specific sites of autosome. For example, a string of DNA characters on a chromosome of a child is "TCAT tcat tcat tcat tcat", and the repetition of these five "tcats" can be regarded as a "genetic marker". His mother's or father's DNA must have five "TCAT" repeats at this site, that is, there must be this "genetic marker". Similarly, by comparing the DNA strings of more than ten loci on other chromosomes, we can determine who is who is not the parents of the child.
Second, "The Discovery of Y Chromosome Adam"
Y chromosome is only passed on to children, not to women, and passed on from generation to generation. Y chromosome can be divided into many regions. If two people have exactly the same gene character sequence in a certain area, then they must have the same paternal line.
1995, three scientists, Dorrit, Akasi and Gilbert, published a paper entitled "No Polymorphism in ZFY Region of Human Y Chromosome" in the authoritative American scientific journal Science. [Note 2] They measured the ZFY gene region of Y chromosome in 38 men from all over the world. To their great surprise, in the ZFY gene region they detected, 38 men had identical DNA sequences. Are these 38 unrelated men descendants of a lecherous all over the world? This is obviously impossible. According to this result, they asserted that a male ancestor had the same ancestry and was estimated to have lived about 270,000 years ago (initial estimate). In this way, after the discovery of mitochondrial Eve, grandma's ancestors, grandpa's ancestors and Y chromosome Adam's ancestors finally emerged from the fog of history for the first time. The following are the sequences of the first 20 genetic traits of ZFY gene:
“TGGCA GACTG GCTAA ACAGA……”
Next, another paper entitled "Y chromosome shows that Adam is African" was published in the American journal Science published on June1997+1October 3/KLOC-0. This human "grandfather" was officially named "Y chromosome Adam". The "genetic marker" of 729 gene character sequences located in the ZFY gene region of Y chromosome becomes "Adam marker". It's amazing! In fact, God has implanted the mark of "God made" in Adam, and let Adam's descendants copy this mark. So, who can deny that we are God's children? Of course, there are no such traces on the corpses of monkeys, orangutans or ancient apes all over the world. This is really the result of a special paternity test.
As for our "grandfather", what does it look like? Spencer? Spencer Wells, the world's leading molecular biologist, described it this way: "From the above clues, the image of our ancestor slowly emerged: his skin was dark (probably lighter than that of Africans now), his figure was thin and moderate, and you wouldn't recognize him if he sat opposite you on the train in a suit." [Note 4]
Third, the two universities have made great contributions.
1987, the molecular biology team led by Professor Wilson of the University of California, Berkeley and Professor Kahn of the University of Hawaii published an article in the journal Nature, saying that the research results of mitochondrial DNA extracted from 148 placentas of different races show that all human mitochondrial DNA now has highly similar characteristics, and the average difference rate is only about 0.32%, even higher than that of African gorillas. This discovery enabled them to confirm that all the mitochondrial DNA of modern humans came from an African woman about 200,000 years ago (initial estimate). She is the grandmother of all mankind. Wilson and others said, "We can call this lucky woman Eve 200,000 years ago, and her lineage continues to this day." This is the origin of "mitochondrial DNA Eve theory". Since then, the voice against this theory has become weaker and weaker. Later, more studies proved that the findings of professors such as Wilson were correct.
From San Francisco, drive south along 10 1. In 25 minutes, you will meet Stanford University, which is a world-class university as famous as Harvard University. Here, the "Y chromosome research" related to this paper began at 1995. For the research team of this project, we describe it as "a gathering of stars", which may not be exaggerated at all. In addition to Stanford University's own scholars, there are also scholars from many famous universities such as Harvard, Yale and Oxford. There are as many as 2 1 * * researchers in the research report published by Nature Genetics in June 2000. Such a large group of authors is extremely rare even in academic journals where co-sponsorship is common, which not only shows the breakthrough significance of this research, but also shows how rich the research results it involves. The research cost tens of millions, and they 18 months didn't even have a weekend. The results did not live up to their efforts for more than five years. The title of this article that caused great shock is "Y chromosome sequence variation and human population history". It also includes the efforts and contributions of scholars from China. Professor Li Jing, who later became vice president and professional leader of Fudan University, is one of the authors. Did Spencer mention it before? Wells, 1997, postdoctoral fellow at Stanford University. After 200 1, he undertook the important task of the "genetic geography" research project initiated by the National Geographic Society of the United States and participated by many countries. He traveled all over the world in order to collect DNA samples of modern people. He is the author of Exodus from Africa-epic of human ancestors' migration (with Chinese electronic version). Their research not only proved Adam's theory, but also gave the paternal genealogy that passed down from Adam to us, and also demonstrated the migration route of our ancestors.
Fourth, the genealogy of blood.
Every human body consists of about 60 trillion cells: every cell of the same person, whether it is blood, muscle or saliva, has the same gene (except for rare mutant genes in sperm, eggs and germ cells). The Y chromosome in male nucleus can contain 38 million genetic features. This little Y chromosome, invisible to the naked eye, can record information equivalent to tens of millions of words.
A faithful record of human paternal genealogy-"Y chromosome non-recombination region": With the discovery of Y chromosome Adam, people pay more attention to Y chromosome. It is found that 95% of the regions in Y chromosome are non-recombination regions, which means that the character information of this region does not change with the inheritance of each generation (please pay attention to this "generation"), so they are named "Y chromosome non-recombination regions". This area can be further divided into 2 18 smaller "character areas". Each "special zone" contains a DNA base character sequence, which will be completely copied to the son.
If you have difficulty in understanding this "Y chromosome non-recombination region", you can regard it as a "bar code" of goods, that is, a digital bar that knows the price when paying, and the bar code contains the information of the producing country, manufacturer and product. Every man has such a DNA barcode, which can be copied to the next generation. After several generations, a son will produce a new mutation mark, which is equivalent to adding a number at the end of this barcode. This "special son" has both his father's mark and his own new mark on the Y chromosome, which will be completely copied to future generations. Therefore, "new genetic markers" will be passed down from generation to generation and become special markers owned by a certain ethnic group. The next generation, more and more "genetic markers" are handed down, and the markers are getting thinner and thinner, just like bar codes are getting longer and longer. The inheritance of "genetic markers" enables us to trace back to our ancestors; Mutation produces new "genetic markers", which can distinguish different ethnic groups. Therefore, we say that the "non-recombination region of Y chromosome" is the most faithful record of human paternal genealogy. It is these markers that faithfully record the genetic history of each of us, from "Y chromosome Adam" to the present, stretching for thousands of generations.
Pedigree in blood: each of us has a paternal pedigree in our cells that is invisible to the naked eye, which molecular biologists call "biological fossils" vividly. This is an unimaginable but wonderful objective fact. Surprisingly, God has put our identity records into our bodies. Why are we digging for fossils everywhere? Why do you want to find your own family tree? It is written in every cell of your body and mine. This is not a fantasy. Don't we all trust DNA paternity? If your Y chromosome is identified as your father, will you doubt that he is not your father? Since we can identify our fathers, grandfathers, great grandfathers, sons, grandsons and great grandsons with DNA, we can certainly find our older ancestors with DNA. Adam's theory is the conclusion of this identity.
The "family tree" recorded by Y chromosome is like a "DNA barcode" hidden in human body. Analogously, genetic markers can be regarded as numbers in bar codes, and each marker corresponds to a number. The first code of this bar code is "Adam mark", and the following code is the record from Adam to the present ancestor. The last code represents your paternal blood relatives in recent decades. Within the scope of this last code, you can also use Y chromosome paternity test to get a more accurate paternal relationship. Molecular biologists can know the source of your life by scanning the DNA barcode in your blood with special machines. Professor AARON Li, a molecular biologist, was asked whether the Y chromosome could be used to identify the authenticity of Cao Cao's skull. AARON Li replied: It is enough to compare the Y chromosome with the offspring of Cao and Xiahou Xing (Cao Song's father's surname is Xiahou), and there are also examples of longer identification abroad.
Fifth, the marks on our bodies.
The pedigree in our blood is recorded by the "genetic marker" in the Y chromosome. What is the mark like? Markers are different sequences of DNA characters. The international research team of Stanford University later published 167 DNA character sequences found in the "non-recombination region of Y chromosome" and gave them different names, such as M 168, M 175 and M 122. Since then, the theory of DNA discovering human historical trajectory has gone out of the mysterious hall of molecular biologists and become a database where everyone can find and verify their paternal history. As long as a drop of blood can be traced back to ancestors thousands of generations ago, until Adam [note 9]. According to "Adam Marker" and these 167 markers in people all over the world, we can sketch out a human paternal genealogy and the corresponding migration history.
Here is an example of "genetic marker": About 35,000 years ago, when human migrated from Africa to a certain area near China in southern China, a fertilized egg cell developed into a male embryonic cell. On his Y chromosome, in the "UTY 1 07" section, the original five-base character "TTCTC", for some reason, after the embryonic cell developed, it changed from. Five letters are missing from the 84th to 88th "... ……ctcttttccaa" sequence) "Note 7", while people in other areas still retain the bases represented by these five characters in this DNA sequence. Thus, this new genetic marker named M 175 was born, which is commonly called "mutation". The International Committee on Y Chromosome Nomenclature designated this new marker type as O type (English letter O) for all offspring populations below M 175, which is of course easier to remember. The offspring of all O-groups have this unique "genetic brand". Who are they? It can be guessed that they are the majority of China people, including you, me and him, and also many ethnic groups in Southeast Asia. That is to say, we have a paternal ancestor M 175 just like this. Because just like measuring your blood type, many research institutions can measure your DNA markers, and you only need a little blood or saliva.
When did the descendants of M 175 enter our present territory? Scientists now estimate that it was about 20 thousand years ago. Then, with the passage of time, a boy in his offspring mysteriously changed the original character "T" to "C" at the "G327" and the 73rd point of the Y chromosome during embryonic development. Thus, a new DNA genetic marker was born. Molecular biologists at Stanford University named this marker "M 122". Now the boy has the mark of M 122 (M 175+M 122) than his father. This M 122 marker is a famous genetic marker, covering the largest population group-Han nationality. On the contrary, among the Dai and Shui people in China, the personality at this time is still "T" in their genes, but they have an extra marker "M 1 19" that the Han people don't have. Although they (M 175+M 1 19) are different from the Han people, they all bear the same "M 175" mark.
It should be noted here that genetic markers only appear when male fertilized eggs form embryos, and can only be passed on to the next generation through reproduction. It can neither be imported from the outside world nor changed after adulthood. Therefore, the first person with a certain mark can only be the only man, not a group of men. The conclusion can only be that all Han people are descendants of "M 122".
Where did the paternal ancestor M 175 come from? Molecular biologists have found the paternal marker "M9" of M 175 in the Y chromosome of Pakistani aborigines through the research and comparison of human Y chromosomes around the world. The descendants marked M9 first came from Pakistan in Central Asia to Cambodia in South Asia (M9+M 175), and then entered China to the Yellow River Basin (M9+M 175+ M 122). Among the Han population in Hebei, Shaanxi, Shandong, Hubei, Anhui, Sichuan and Jiangxi, genetic testing found that more than 80% of the Han population was marked as "M 122".
According to the above time, cavemen about 15 thousand years ago may be our ancestors; The Beijingers about 400,000 years ago were by no means our ancestors.
Sixth, the story of AARON Li's Y chromosome.
In 2006, AARON Li, a doctoral supervisor in the Modern Anthropology Laboratory of Fudan University, and his teacher Professor Li Jing won the second prize of the National Natural Science Award for their research on the origin and spread of human beings in East Asia. AARON Li once told the news media about his genetic markers and his story of seeking roots. From his example, we can understand how the "genealogy" in our blood is verified.
AARON Li is a native of Fengxian. He didn't know his exact nationality when he was in college. He filled in the column of Han nationality, but from an early age, he found that his family and the cultural habits of the surrounding Han nationality were very different. His great-grandfather and great-grandmother both had their own dark blue national costumes. They have their own festivals. On April 18 of the lunar calendar, they will splash water for the New Year and have some special etiquette. It was not until AARON Li went to Yunnan Dai people to collect DNA "samples" that he suddenly found that he could almost understand Dai language; When communicating with the Shui people, AARON Li was even more surprised. He can even understand the whispers and private conversations there.
After returning to Shanghai, he scanned the "DNA barcode" in his blood and found that he had the same "M 1 19" mutation mark as Dai and Shui people. Further research proves that his ancestors came to Zhejiang and Shanghai about 8000 years ago. Many people who are interested in their ancestors and family history have asked AARON Li's laboratory to test them. Do you have such an interest?
Seven, our paternal genealogy
Paternal atlas is one of the important achievements released by the international research team of Stanford University. According to the Y chromosome samples they collected, 1 16 haplotypes were divided, and each haplotype population contained the same Y chromosome marker series. With the above knowledge, it is not difficult to look at this complicated diagram. As can be seen from the mark of M 122, it is M 175, M09, then M89, M 168, M 139, M94, M42, until our old grandfather "Y chromosome Adam". The situation of other nationalities in the world, the highest starting point is summed up in the point of "Y chromosome Adam". In recent ten years, the international organization "Genome Research" has supplemented this atlas with new research results from various countries every year and published it on the Internet (www.genome.org), but the overall structure has not changed. As can be seen from the figure, three markers M9 1, M60 and M 168 appeared several years after the birth of "Y chromosome Adam". People all over the world are descendants of these three people, and the descendants of M 168 are all over the world. This "paternal atlas" can be said to be the overall achievement of paternity testing of all mankind.
Eight, the Eden of mankind
In recent ten years, with the support of Waite Family Foundation and IBM, and with the participation of many countries in the world, we have spent hundreds of millions of dollars to collect more than100000 DNA samples of indigenous people around the world. With the efforts of the international research teams of Stanford University and the University of Michigan, we not only further improved Adam's theory, but also drew a "geographical distribution map of human DNA types in the world". As mentioned earlier, people all over the world are descendants of three "gene people": M9 1, M60, M 168. The descendants of Y chromosome Adam with M9 1 and M60 markers all live in Africa at present, while the descendants of M 168 have already spread all over the world. The results of the analysis confirmed that Ethiopia in Africa (called "Gushi" in ancient times) is the same birthplace of M9 1, M60, M 168, and is naturally the hometown of Y chromosome Adam-Eden.
9. Are Beijingers our ancestors?
100 for more than a year, paleoanthropologists have seen the changes of skull, brain block and leg bone from the anatomical point of view according to the comparison between Darwin's theory of evolution and ancient fossil bones, and found that there are gradual changes, thus confirming that people evolved from apes. Now some people call this the "super nemesis" theory.
The skull of the first Beijinger was found in the suburb of Beijing, China. Inferred from the characteristics of skull thickness, brain capacity, thick forehead and low forehead, it is an evolutionary process from Javanese ape-man to Peking ape-man, to European Neanderthal ape-man and finally to modern man. And named Beijingers "Beijingers". 26 days later, on February 28th, 1929, 1929, geological society of china held a grand celebration meeting to announce the discovery of Chinese ancestor fossils. It was later determined that he lived between 400,000 and 500,000 years ago. Since then, Beijingers have been the undisputed ancestors of China people. Now that I think about it, how rash it is to make such a big wrong conclusion. In the CCTV TV series "Who is Eve", there is a dialogue between molecular biologist Li Jing and traditional paleontologist Wu Xinzhi. It can be seen that the argument of the latter is far less than that of the former. The conclusion that Beijingers are the ancestors of China people should be over. Similarly, Neanderthals were not the ancestors of Europeans.
In fact, Adam's theory is a special paternity test, which is done for all men and, of course, for all women's fathers. From every drop of blood, every hair and even every mouthful of saliva, we can trace it back to Adam's ZFY gene, which proves that we are the descendants of Y chromosome Adam. There are many institutions in the world that can conduct such tests. In contrast, where is the evidence that apes are our ancestors? However, it is those unfounded "ancestors" of Beijingers and Neanderthals who boarded the history museum and printed textbooks. We have to ask, why can't the "Adam and Eve Theory" supported by modern DNA research results and verified by all countries in the world be written into textbooks? Why can't we push such a proposal? Evolution, a shallow hypothesis based only on the anatomical similarity of bones, is there any reason to continue to dominate the forum?
X.y chromosome Adam and mitochondrial Eve can't have evolved.
Honest evolutionary scientist: Spencer? Spencer Wells is one of the 265,438+0 scientific workers who discovered the Adam theory of Y chromosome, and he is also a believer in the theory of evolution. When he and his team discovered the Y chromosome in 2000, people naturally thought, how did this "Y chromosome Adam" evolve?
He is an honest scientist. His final answer was: "Now, we have finally crossed all kinds of obstacles and can go back thousands of generations. At this time, we found that we could not find variation to answer deeper historical questions. We can only face a blank. As a whole, human beings are all included in a pedigree, one from the Y chromosome back to Adam and the other from the mitochondrial DNA back to Eve. When this pedigree originated from chaos, we have no way of knowing. If the ancestor of this lineage was a real individual in ancient times, and he was the same ancestor of everyone living today, then we can't infer who his ancestor was with genetic technology. We can ask Adam and Eve about their relationship with other species (such as chimpanzees or fresh fish, which is our close relative? ), however, continuing to trace the history before the formation of this pedigree can only fall into the darkness of silence. " Note 4: I believe this is not only the unanimous view of Wells himself, but also the unanimous view of 2 1 experts.
There is no DNA evidence for the theory of evolution: all the claims that "Y chromosome Adam" and "mitochondrial Eve" came from evolution have no DNA evidence. The representative view of "from evolution" comes from Fang. On the contrary, there must be many women and many men living at the same time, but their mitochondrial genes and their Y chromosome genes have not been inherited until now. But they inherited other genes. "
This is purely subjective speculation. Since there is evidence that "their mitochondrial genes and their Y chromosome genes have not been inherited until now", why should we believe that they "once existed"? If "they or they inherited other genes", who discovered these genes? Do you have documentary evidence? Genes can only be inherited through reproduction. If a gene really comes from "non-Y chromosome Adam" and "non-mitochondrial Eve", then it must have mating and reproductive relationship with the offspring of "Y chromosome Adam" and "mitochondrial Eve". If it is a woman, there will be "female descendants inherit her mitochondria"; If he is male, there will be "male descendants who inherit his Y chromosome", and their "mitochondrial gene" or "Y chromosome gene" will inevitably be preserved. How can "a gene" be preserved, but they just lost their "mitochondrial gene" or "Y chromosome gene"?
Pure DNA record: because we are all descendants of Y chromosome Adam and mitochondrial Eve, there is a very special inference that the marriage of their first generation children must be the marriage of brothers and sisters; The marriage of their second generation children must be the marriage of cousins; The marriage of their third generation children must be the marriage of brothers and sisters; And so on. In the accumulation of thousands of generations, neither men nor women have been combined with other "ancestor X" that we simply don't understand. Otherwise, people all over the world today can't completely "* * * enjoy" the only grandparent. On the contrary, such a simple Y chromosome and mitochondrial DNA, such a pure lineage, just shows that there has never been a so-called "ancestor X" around them. Not to mention that there are many "ancestors X", even if there is only one, it is completely impossible for human beings to maintain such a pure bloodline.
Why didn't more apes evolve into adults? If "Y chromosome Adam" and "Mitochondrial Eve" evolved from apes, why didn't Peking man, Neanderthal, Javanese and other apes evolve into adults? Africa is so big that many people should have evolved and left different descendants. Where are they?
There is no human evolution in DNA: from the mutation of human DNA for more than 100 thousand years, there is no change that can be called "evolution", and the "Adam mark" of Y chromosome has not changed at all. Otherwise, today we will see a completely different and brand-new "alien race" species, and there will be different degrees of "evolution" between us and them, not just the difference in skin color. Hundreds of thousands of years is not a very short time. Now people all over the world, regardless of skin color, have a similar "spectrum age" after all, and there is no difference between wisdom and body organs. At the same time, people of all colors can get married, give birth to healthy offspring, and also exchange blood transfusion and organ transplantation, without worrying about organ mutual exclusion caused by race.
Man is not an accidental product of nature: according to Mr. Fang, many other descendants of men and women were dead at that time, and only a pair of descendants of Adam and Eve were lucky enough to survive and produce more than 6 billion people on earth. Then, if we imagine that there were 1000 pairs of such "Adam and Eve" at that time, 999% of them were unfortunately extinct. If so, it's too close! This earth has almost become a world of monkeys! Man's existence is only determined by one-thousandth probability, complete chance and luck. How can such an inference be believed?
Adam and Eve theory and evolution theory are two diametrically opposite theories: the former is based on the accurate detection of DNA, and the latter is based on the similarity of bones and the inference of hypotheses, and the two cannot be integrated. As we know, the theory of evolution has found many ancestors from different regions for human beings for more than 100 years: Javanese, Beijingers, Neanderthals and so on. In short, the more you look, the more you prove the correctness of evolution. However, Adam and Eve's theory only found a man and a woman in one place in Africa. Isn't there a lot of opposition? It is difficult to explain the appearance of Adam and Eve with the theory of evolution.