This test is influential internationally, with high validity and reliability, and is widely used in the fields of personality assessment, talent selection, psychological counseling and career counseling. The test was introduced to China on 1979, and was revised into Chinese by professional organizations.
Sixteen personality factors are independent, and there is little correlation between them. The measurement of each factor can make the subjects have a clear and unique understanding of one aspect of personality characteristics and a comprehensive understanding of the combination of sixteen different factors of the subjects' personality, so as to comprehensively evaluate their overall personality.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Test (MMPI)
Introduction to MMPI
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Questionnaire (MMPI)
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Questionnaire (MMPI) was published in 1943, and was compiled by professors S·RHathawag and J·C·Mckinley of the University of Minnesota. The appearance of this test is an important milestone in the development history of self-proclaimed personality test, which has a great influence on the research process of personality test. Up to now, it has been translated into more than 65,438+000 versions, which are widely used in anthropology, psychology, medicine and other fields. It is the most frequently cited personality claim scale in the world. China studied and revised MMPI, and from the end of 1970s, China version and norm were formed.
The purpose of MMPI is to try to provide an objective evaluation of human personality characteristics. There are 566 items in the test1* *, including 14 subscales, of which 10 is a clinical scale and 4 are validity scales. Select China MMPI collaboration group's China norm to determine 10 clinical related indicators and 5 research scale indicators.
Ten clinical indicators:
1, Hs (hypochondria);
2.d (depression);
3.hy (hysteria);
4.Pd (psychopathic deviation);
5.Mf (masculinity-femininity);
6.Pa (paranoia);
7.Pt (mental weakness);
8.Sc (schizophrenia, schizophrenia);
9. Horse (hypomania);
10, Si (social introversion)
Five research scale indicators:
1, explicit anxiety (MAS);
2. dependence (dy);
3. dominance (do);
4. Social responsibility;
5. Control power (Cn)
The other three factors:
1, lying or covering up (l);
2. Cheating point (f);
3. Correction score (k)
MMPI uses self-assessment questions, which are actually 550 questions. Because 16 repeated questions were added, it became 566 questions. Topics cover a wide range, including physical conditions (such as nervous system, cardiovascular system, digestive system, reproductive system, etc. ), mental state and attitude towards family, marriage, religion, politics, law and society. When MMPI is implemented, candidates are required to give "yes-no" answers to all questions according to their real situation.
This test is suitable for people over 16 years old, with junior high school education or above, and without physical defects that affect the test results.
19 12 in the constitution of mental illness, Adler named his academic system individual psychology. In the same year, he also founded the journal of individual psychology, the organ newspaper of the school.
Adler believes that people's life and spiritual activities have certain goals, and people are facing the future. He thinks that because people set a goal for their spiritual life, they will better adapt to reality. He regards all psychological phenomena as reflecting a unified life plan, and the overall goal of life plan is superiority. Psychological activities are all around the goal of superiority.
The ultimate goal of Adler's theory is human superiority and perfection. He called it the essence of life, which was the basic motive force of Adler's personality theory. The motivation of behavior comes from human sociality, not biological factors. Later, Adler changed the view of personal superiority and struggle into personal struggle for a perfect society. At the same time, he also believes that personal superiority and struggle may be beneficial or harmful. If a person ignores the needs of others and society and only focuses on his personal sense of superiority, he may have a sense of superiority. A person with a sense of superiority may become a overbearing, boastful and arrogant person and is not very popular with society.
Through reading a large number of papers and works by Adler, I think the book Inferiority and Transcendence written by Adler has the deepest influence on me. Based on the clue of "inferiority complex", the book systematically expounds his individual psychological thought. The book not only deals with why people live, the relationship between body and mind, inferiority and superiority, the influence of family and school on people, but also involves early memory, dreams, crime, love and marriage. In his book, he focuses on the formation of inferiority complex, its influence on individuals, and how individuals can transcend inferiority complex and turn inferiority complex into the pursuit of superior status, so as to achieve success.
Inferiority plays an important role in Adler's theory. He believes that the general sense of inferiority is the original decisive force of behavior, and the sense of inferiority itself is not abnormal. It is a normal development process for a person to pursue superior position. The sense of superiority is the ultimate goal that everyone strives to achieve under the encouragement of an internal driving force, which changes with the meaning that everyone gives to life. In the book, he also discusses the influence of family and school on individuals. He believes that human behavior is not determined by biological instinctive power, but by social power. People's behavior comes from inferiority complex, and we should overcome and surpass it.
Adler's inferiority complex and compensation function are everywhere in life. More and more people who are influenced by it believe that Adler has made more contributions to psychology than Freud. Not only that, the social significance of Adler's theory is also quite profound. Psychologist Murphy pointed out: "Adler's psychology is the first psychological system in the history of psychology to develop in the direction that we should call it social science today."
psychoanalysis
Contains the following three meanings:
1, the first meaning of psychoanalysis is 1890, a method for treating neurosis founded and developed by Freud and his followers.
Key concepts include
A: Free association replaces hypnosis;
B: instead of giving guidance or advice;
C: Empathy.
Psychoanalytic techniques include guiding and helping patients to associate freely, analyzing the obstacles encountered in association and association, and analyzing his feelings and attitudes towards analysts. Strictly speaking, Freudian psychotherapy combined with other techniques is not psychoanalysis, but psychoanalytic psychotherapy.
2. The second meaning of psychoanalysis is the psychological theory that explains the emergence and psychological development of neurosis.
Key concepts include
A: The concept of subconscious mind-a psychological activity that people are not aware of, but plays a role in people's behavior;
B: the concept of impedance-by using the defense mechanism, resisting the process of subconscious becoming consciousness;
C: the concept of empathy-a person's current relationship with others is influenced by his past relationship with others, especially the relationship between patients and therapists, which will reproduce the relationship between patients and their past relatives.
3. The third meaning of psychoanalysis: Broadly speaking, all psychotherapy theories and methods of Freud, Jung, Adler and their followers can be called psychoanalysis.
Rorschach inkblot test
Compiled by Swiss psychiatrist Rorschach in 192 1, it is a very representative projection test and is widely used in the world today. It mainly evaluates the personality characteristics projected by the subjects by observing their free reactions to some standardized ink patterns.
When testing, drop some ink in the center of a piece of paper, then fold the paper in half and squeeze it hard to make the ink flow in all directions, forming an ink pattern with symmetrical sides but uncertain shape. The test consists of 10 carefully made ink paintings, of which 7 are ink paintings and 3 are color ink paintings.
The test is divided into two steps: one is the association stage, in which 10 pictures are given to the subjects one by one in sequence, and they are asked what they see, regardless of time and the number of answers, until they don't answer, they change to another and make records at the same time. Second, in the inquiry stage, after reading 10 pictures, ask each answer from the beginning, ask them whether they saw the whole or part of the picture, why they said it was like what, and make records. At the end of the two phases, the test is completed and the results are analyzed. The scoring system and result analysis of Rorschach test are complex, which generally needs to be analyzed according to several main indicators such as reaction time, answer part, answer basis and association content. For the evaluation of morphological level, excellent level means that the response content is consistent with the ink image, and the details and organization should generally be excellent; A good standard is that the content of the reaction is generally consistent with the ink image, without any inappropriate refinement and unreasonable composition; The bad aspect is the decline of accuracy and consistency; Disease grade I is the loss of morphological accuracy and consistency. Rorschach test is mainly diagnosed by experience, which is subjective, complex in technology, demanding in training, time-consuming and difficult to master. At present, it is rarely used clinically in China.
humanistic psychology
1, emphasizing human responsibility
Step 2 emphasize "at this moment"
3. Look at the individual from the perspective of phenomenology.
4. Emphasize human growth.
Humanistic psychology is an innovative movement of American contemporary western psychology after World War II. After the establishment of the American Humanistic Psychology Association in the early 1960s, this movement has been greatly developed. 197 1 year, the Netherlands held an international conference, which affected Europe and Asia.
Humanistic psychologists believe that psychology should focus on the study of human value and personality development. They not only object to S. Freud's psychoanalysis that the conscious experience is a basic driving or defense mechanism, but also object to behavior that regards consciousness as an incidental phenomenon of behavior. On the issue of human value, most humanistic psychologists agree with Plato's and Rousseau's idealism, and think that human nature is good and evil, which are derivative phenomena under the influence of environment, so people can be improved through education and an ideal society is possible. On the basic theory and methodology of psychology, they inherited the tradition of W. Dilthey and M. wertheimer 19, advocated treating the particularity of psychological research objects correctly, opposed using the principles and methods of atomic physics and animal psychology to study human psychology, and advocated replacing reductionism with holism.
As a movement, humanistic psychology was initiated by many psychologists with similar views, mainly including personality psychologists G.W. allport, H.A. Murray and G.Murphy; New psychoanalysts K Horney and E Fromm; Existentialist psychologist R. May; Biological theorist K. Gordesch Tahern; Development psychologists C. Biller and J. F. Bugenta; Comparative psychologist and social psychologist A.H. Maslow; Psychologist and educational reformer C. R. Rogers, etc. Among them, Maslow, Rogers and Mei are recognized as the leaders of this movement.
The rise of humanism has a long brewing process. The study of American personality psychology, new psychoanalysis and organism theory in the 1920s and 1930s was the early theoretical preparation. Allport believes that man is a unity formed by the interaction of many factors. Every adult is different from others and treats the world in his own unique and harmonious way. This view is in direct opposition to the behaviorism theory that excludes conscious experience. Based on personality theory, allport later became a key figure in establishing the Department of Social Relations of Harvard University, which created conditions for the separation of humanistic psychology and experimental psychology in the college. Murray and Murphy also published important personality theory works during this period. They combined the biological factors of personality with social factors, which laid the foundation for the development of humanistic theory. Honeye and Fromm disagree with Freud's view of exaggerating factors, and regard the social problems brought about by the development of American industrial society as social factors leading to mental disorders, which is one of the main differences between humanistic psychology and traditional psychoanalysis. Goldshtajhn's On the Body published in 1939 is considered as the cornerstone of the main theory of psychology, that is, the theory of self-realization. He first discusses self-realization from the perspective of the development of physical potential, and uses empirical research in psychology to strengthen this concept originally put forward by philosophy.
The first batch of representative works systematically discussing humanistic psychology were published in the forties and fifties, including Maslow's Theory of Human Motivation (1943) and Motivation and Personality (1954); Rogers's Patient-centered Therapy (195 1) and On Human Growth (1961); Existence: A New Perspective of Psychiatry and Psychology (1959) edited by Mei. Maslow pointed out that human needs and motives are a hierarchical structure, and the generation of high-level motives depends on the satisfaction of low-level needs. He also used the data of comparative psychology to prove that the basic needs and motivations of low-level and high-level are instinctive or similar in nature, that is, they tend to pursue satisfaction spontaneously, while the high-level needs and motivations, such as friendship, cognition, aesthetics and creative satisfaction, are the realization of human values or the self-realization of human nature. Rogers demonstrated people's inner constructive tendency with the experience of psychotherapy and psychological consultation, and thought that although this inner tendency would be hindered by environmental conditions, it could be eliminated through doctors' unconditional care, empathy and active guidance for patients, and mental health could be restored. He also applied this theory to education reform, emphasizing the importance of establishing close teacher-student relationship and relying on students' self-guidance ability in education. Mei introduced European existential psychology and existential psychotherapy into American humanistic psychology, thinking that although people's situation is tragic, they can move towards a bright future through the cultivation of courage, the overcoming of anxiety and self-choice.
Since 1980s, the humanistic movement has been further deepened. The self-realization theory with Maslow and Rogers as one side and the self-choice theory with existential psychologists such as Mei as the other side say that after Maslow's death, Mei and Rogers began an open debate on human nature. May disagrees with Rogers that evil is caused by the environment. He believes that there are both evil and good in human nature, which is human potential. We can't face up to the fact that evil has had a profound and harmful impact on the humanistic movement.
In addition, the self-realization theory, which represents the mainstream of humanistic psychology, has different development trends. The Rogers School still insists on the research centered on individual psychology, but others have begun to study transpersonal psychology and explore how individual consciousness transcends itself and merges with the broad world.
Finally, the construction of methodology. Maslow once pointed out that traditional scientific methods are not enough to solve the complex problems of human psychology, while humanistic methodology does not exclude traditional scientific methods but expands the scope of scientific research to solve the problems of human beliefs and values that were excluded from psychological research in the past. At the end of 1970s, there was an attempt to strengthen humanistic psychology with scientific methodology, with J. Rizik as the representative. He believes that humanism reintroduces teleology into psychology by replacing the old paradigm with a new paradigm, but only through dialectical methods and strict logic can this change be completed.
cognitive psychology
It is a psychological trend of thought that rose in the west in the mid-1950s, and became a major research direction of western psychology in the 1970s. It studies people's advanced psychological processes, mainly cognitive processes, such as attention, perception, representation, memory, thinking and language.
Studying cognitive process from the perspective of information processing is the mainstream of modern cognitive psychology, which can be said to be equivalent to information processing psychology. It regards people as an information processing system, and thinks that cognition is information processing, including the whole process of conversion, simplification, processing, storage and use of sensory input. According to this view, cognition can be decomposed into a series of stages, each stage is a unit that performs a certain operation on the input information, and the reaction is the product of this series of stages and operations. All components of an information processing system are interrelated in some way.
Trait school
The main representatives of the idiosyncratic school are Albat, Cartel and Eysenck.
Allbutt first put forward the theory of personality traits in 1937. He divides personality into * * * identical traits and personal traits, and personal traits include primary traits, central traits and secondary traits. * * * Homogeneity refers to the * * * homogeneity of most people or groups in a certain social and cultural form. Personal characteristics are unique characteristics of individuals, which can be divided into primary characteristics according to their functions in life, that is, the most typical and general characteristics of individuals; Second, the central trait, that is, several important traits that constitute individual uniqueness, generally has 5 to10 in each person; The third is the secondary feature, which will only be shown under special circumstances.
According to Cartel, the element of the basic structure of personality is trait. People think that trait is the consistency that people keep in different times and situations. He also believes that personality traits are hierarchical. The first level is individual characteristics and * * * the same characteristics. The second level is the surface characteristics and root characteristics. Surface features refer to behaviors or features that can be directly observed through external manifestations. On the surface, there are different reasons for similar behaviors. Root traits refer to interrelated characteristics or behaviors based on the same reason. For example, there are different psychological motivations behind the same superficial characteristics of college students' cheating in exams; However, poor sleep before exams, nervous exams and trembling legs in physical education exams all stem from the same root trait anxiety. 1949 Cattell screened out 16 personality traits through factor analysis, such as gregarious, smart, stable, bullying, excited, persistent, aggressive, sensitive, suspicious, imaginative, sophisticated, anxious, innovative, independent, self-disciplined and nervous, which are widely used in personality tests.