Keywords: land management; Mutual assistance and cooperation; Labor-intensive agriculture; Employment relationship; Lease relationship
China Library Classification Number: F 129 Document Identification Number: A.
Labor mutual assistance is an important form of production relations in farmers' land management. It is not only the embodiment of farmers' productivity level, but also the embodiment of farmers' position in the social and economic structure and their rights and obligations. However, in the previous research on the social and economic history of rural areas in China, people focused on the tenancy relationship and the employment relationship, but paid insufficient attention to the spontaneous labor mutual assistance relationship between farmers, and even completely excluded it from the analysis field of vision. Therefore, this paper intends to organically link land possession with land management, focusing on the relationship between productivity and ownership, and to investigate the spontaneous labor mutual assistance of farmers in modern Shandong Province in land management.
The development of labor-intensive agriculture and the uneven distribution of production factors coexist.
In modern Shandong, the contradiction between man and land was very prominent. In order to feed more people on limited land, the farming mode of two-year triple cropping system has been popularized in rural areas of Shandong Province. At the same time, with the introduction of high-yield crops in the United States, the multiple cropping index and crop yield of Shandong land have been greatly improved by rationally adjusting crop planting structure and planting order. The average multiple cropping index in some areas has reached a high level of about 152, which is equivalent to the expansion of the original cultivated land area by 0.52 times. The introduction of American crops such as sweet potatoes and peanuts has also increased the yield per mu of crops several times. According to the statistics of Shandong Province during the Republic of China, the average yield per mu of sweet potato reached 1.289 kg/mu, which was 2-3 times that of other crops after drying (three kg is equivalent to one kg). The average yield per mu of peanut reached 274.5 kg/mu, while the average yield per mu of soybean was only 1.365438+. [References]
[1] sheets. Compilation of statistical data of main crop production in China in the 20th century [M]. By Wang Baoqing. Study on the change of planting structure in Shandong since Ming and Qing Dynasties and its influence —— Focusing on the introduction and popularization of American crops [M]. Beijing: China Agricultural Publishing House, 2007. ][ 1](p 148)
The adjustment of agricultural planting structure and farming methods in modern Shandong was realized under the condition of agricultural technology stagnation and a large amount of labor and capital investment. The development of this kind of labor-intensive agriculture has enhanced the decentralized management ability of small land and the economic strength of small and medium-sized farmers, and at the same time, it has also spawned a large demand for production tools, labor and other production factors for small and medium-sized farmers. However, in modern rural areas of Shandong, the phenomenon of uneven distribution of production factors is very common, and the majority of small and medium-sized farmers are facing the dilemma of shortage of production materials to varying degrees:
The ownership of farm animals and farm tools is an important symbol to distinguish the peasant class. Most rich farmers have relatively complete farm tools and livestock allocation, while poor farmers lack production tools to varying degrees. According to Bukai's investigation, the proportion of small farmers without farm animals in North China is 62%, that of farmers with medium cultivated land is 40%, and that of large farmers is only 4%. [[2] Wang Jiange. Ecology and society in North China at the end of traditional society [M]. Beijing: Sanlian Bookstore, 2009. ][2](p 195) The middle, poor and tenant farmers in Fushanhou Village of Jimo County and Dawa Village of Xuejiadao in Jiaozhou Bay can only cultivate or sow with simple triangular shovels. Before and after liberation, there were only four rafts in 350 households in Fushan Village, all of which were owned by landlords and rich peasants. Generally, middle-aged and poor peasants "don't have much land (only three or five acres, seven or eight acres), which is not worth buying and can't afford it." [3] Li. Social investigation in dingxian county. China Civic Education Promotion Association, 1933. ][3](p305-p306) In Huimin County, Shandong Province, all farm animals owned by small farmers whose cultivated land is less than 10 mu are converted into farm animals with only 0.038 horses and 40-30 mu of cultivated land. [[4] North Branch Economic Research Institute of Manchuria Railway. Investigation Report on the Rural Areas of Beizhi (I) —— Sunjia Temple in Heping Township, District 1, Huimin County [M]. Showa 14. ][4]
Judging from the labor force required by farmers at all levels for land management, the labor force demand has a great relationship with the land management area. Theoretically speaking, the business area of the rich peasants "exceeds the labor standard of each family (that is, the amount of land that each family can cultivate by its own labor)", and there is a certain demand for labor. However, small and medium-sized farmers have limited land, and the family labor force is sufficient or even surplus. However, with the development of labor-intensive agriculture and commercialization of crops in modern Shandong, the labor intensity of farmland cultivation has increased, especially the cultivation of labor-intensive cash crops, which requires more labor, and small and medium-sized farmers have also experienced the phenomenon of insufficient labor. 1935, wheat 15, soybean 12, sorghum 18, millet 2 1, peanut 24, cotton 60 and tobacco 135 per mu in Shandong. [[5] Room type. Rural labor market in Shandong in Qing Dynasty [M]. Research on Social and Economic History of China [C], Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 2006. [5 ][5](p389) The employment of cash crops is obviously higher than that of food crops. Cotton and tobacco are two major cash crops developed vigorously in modern Shandong, and they are highly labor-saving crops. The labor input per mu of cotton is about 20. Weeding in intertillage for 6 times, plant spacing 1 time, and coring for 2 times in the cotton area of northwest Shandong. Tobacco cultivation does not need animal power, but it needs more manpower. In Shandong, the labor force for growing tobacco is generally about four times that for growing corn. [6] Hu Delin et al. "Zhili Prefecture, Jining, Celebrating Qianlong for 50 Years" (1785). [6] (Volume II, Volume 32) With the development of two-year triple cropping system and the improvement of multiple cropping index in Shandong Province, the labor intensity of farmers is very high, especially in the "double grab" season in May and September. According to a sample survey, in the agricultural areas in the north of China, "about two thirds lack labor force at harvest, one quarter lack labor force at planting and one eighth lack labor force at irrigation". [[7][ America] Bu Kai. Land use in China [M]. Department of Agricultural Economics, Jinling University, 194 1. ][7](p405)
The imbalance between production tools and labor force and the importance of production factor input in labor-intensive agriculture have prompted small and medium-sized farmers to spontaneously establish a wide range of labor mutual assistance relations.
Secondly, the influence of employee management and land lease management on family mutual assistance.
The management of peasant employees is mainly to supplement the shortage of labor force. In modern Shandong rural areas, the employment management is not developed, and the rich peasants and middle peasants mainly cultivate themselves, supplemented by employees. According to a typical survey of three districts 13 villages in Juxian county, domestic employees account for 64.7% of the total labor force and employees account for 32.88%. The middle peasants' employees account for 1.52% of the total labor force, and domestic workers account for 98.48%. This is roughly the general level of staff management in Shandong. [8] East China Political Bureau Land Reform Committee. According to the rural survey in Shandong Province, the suburbs of major cities in East China [M]. 1952 .][8](p32) In some areas where the employment relationship is underdeveloped, the rich peasants don't even employ company workers. For example, in Liupowu village, rich farmers mainly produce their own labor force and only hire short-term workers during busy farming hours. In areas with developed employment relations, the number of domestic employees and employees of rich peasants is roughly the same, such as Haiyangbo Village. Before the war, the rich peasants had labor force 19 and employees 16. Due to the insufficient development of employee management, the labor force owned by farmers often cannot meet the actual production needs. For example, before 1937, the manpower of the rich peasants in Weiqiao village of Yanshan was more than half of that of the average family ... Although the labor force was insufficient, only five of the 24 rich peasants hired long-term workers, and some even hired half-term workers, and * * * hired three and a half long-term workers. ".[[9] Tang Zhiqing. Social and Economic Research on Rural Areas in Modern Shandong [M]. Beijing People's Publishing House, 2003. ][9](p75 1) In Haiyangbo Village, Jiaodong, the land of rich peasants needs 46.7 laborers, and the self-owned laborers and employees add up to ***35, which is still short of 10. The middle peasants are still short of 5.7 workers. In Beisui Village, Lubei, the gains and losses of middle peasants are equal, and the rich peasants are short of 29.5-45.5 laborers [9](p753). Therefore, in the case that employment management can not fully meet the demand of labor force, mutual assistance in labor has become an effective way to supplement labor force.
With the deterioration of agricultural farming environment in modern Shandong, scattered small-scale production was unable to resist and prevent famine. In order to ensure the "right to subsistence" of small farmers, the sharing system has gradually flourished. According to the statistics of "City Examination Compilation Book", during the period of 1930, the sharing system in Shandong accounted for 40.27%. [[ 10] edited by the city [J]. Pinghuai Academic Journal, 1985, (1). ] [10] According to the statistics of the Statistics Bureau of the Accounting Department of the Kuomintang, the proportion of 1935 sharing system reached about 50%. [[ 1 1] Statistics Bureau of Kuomintang Audit Bureau. Statistical Abstracts of the Republic of China [M]. Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1936. ] [1 1] (P538-P539) Due to the poverty of tenants, many sub-leases are shared by the main tenants. The type of sharing in Shandong is more complicated. Some cattle, seeds and fertilizers are provided by landlords. Tenants should eat some food, eat a bucket, and return three or four buckets on the pile. The remaining four grain industries are divided into half or six parts, and all or most of the grass belongs to the landlord, that is, farming for tenant farmers. Some cattle tools, seeds and fertilizers are provided by tenants, and some landlords also provide some agricultural capital. Part of grain, grain and grass are divided equally, and cattle and grass belong to cattle to divide the land. From this point of view, under the sub-lease, in addition to the land conditions, agricultural capital is an important factor to determine the sharing ratio between the main tenant and the tenant. In the process of tenant farming, tenant farmers have less agricultural capital and suffer serious super-economic exploitation; Separate farming, tenant farmers have more agricultural capital, and super-economic exploitation is worse or not. Therefore, in order to reduce the dependence on the landlord's agricultural capital, tenant farmers also began to cooperate with each other to adjust the surplus and deficiency of the means of production.
Thirdly, the forms and rules of rural family mutual assistance in modern Shandong Province.
(A) mutual assistance and cooperation in labor under the condition of basically equal economic conditions-partnership in the use of production tools and nesting
Cooperative use of production tools means that some farmers take the form of mutual assistance between * * * owning farm tools and * * * raising farm animals to make up for the shortage of production tools. In Wei county, small farmers often unite to buy and use farm animals, trolleys and plows. Zhang bought cattle, horses, farm tools and carts, which formed a cooperative production relationship. In Sunjiamiao Village, Huimin County, Shandong Province, the landlord class does not bear the burden of raising any large livestock, and yeomen and semi-yeomen can only raise livestock independently when the cultivated land is sufficient. In Sunjiamiao village, 9 farmers own cows, 3 farmers own mules and 3 farmers own donkeys. The number of livestock owned by farmers alone is 65,438+05, and three semi-farmers own cattle. Due to the shortage of farm animals, the habit of livestock sharing is very popular among farmers. There are more than three semi-farmers and more than two farmers. [4] (P 124-P 129, P 146-P 149, P 167-P 196) Farmers who keep livestock in partnership generally share the purchase. Usually, two families take turns to raise cattle and use cattle, once every ten days; It will be changed to one or three days when the farm is busy. There is another way to share the cost of "co-education" in xiazhai village after Enxian County. For example, there are three * * * companies that provide livestock services, of which two people pay the purchase fee, and 1 person bears the feeding fee [[ 12] China Rural Inertia Survey Conference. Investigation on rural customs in China [M]. Tokyo: Yanbo Bookstore, 65438+.
"Intercropping", also known as "combination" and "planting", is a labor combination form in which farmers combine a certain amount of manpower and animal power with those of other farmers to form two or three cows and cultivate them together. This cooperative labor combination is "a common phenomenon in farming in North China Plain". The official history of Dengzhou in the Qing Dynasty records: "It is one of the reasons that the tiller plows in spring and autumn and uses four cows. A poor family of four or five "[13] Shi Xiu, edited by Yang Qilie \ Ren Xun. Dengzhou County Records [Z], printed in the thirty-third year of Kangxi in Qing Dynasty (1694). ][ 13] (Volume 8) Laiyang. In the book Small-scale Peasant Economy and Social Change in North China, the author also introduced a similar situation. He said: "Two or three small farmers sometimes' partner' to combine livestock and labor to plow the fields" [15] Huang Zongzhi. Small-scale peasant economy and social changes in North China [M]. Beijing; Zhonghua Book Company, 1986. ] [ 15] (P 155)。
The above two kinds of labor services need mutual assistance, and the economic conditions and land management scale of both sides are roughly the same. In the above two forms of mutual assistance, this principle of economic reciprocity is very necessary. Because, with the worsening rural economic situation in modern Shandong, the lives of small farmers are not as comfortable as in the past, which makes them have to haggle over every ounce in their daily production and operation. When hitchhiking, if the economic conditions of two families are too far apart, then the one with poor conditions will be dissatisfied because of his "loss", and then the mutual assistance relationship will often have problems. As Li Lingyi, a villager in Houxiazhai, said: "Generally speaking, it is the combination of people with similar land. In this way, there is no mutual dissatisfaction, otherwise people with less land will be dissatisfied. " Of course, the so-called "equivalence of economic conditions" is not absolute equivalence. Wang of Houxiazhai said, "Only farmers who own the same amount of land can get married. There is nothing wrong with a difference of two or three acres, "Li Lingyi said. "A farmer with ten acres of land and a farmer with only two acres of land cannot be United. The gap is too big. If I have 10 mu of land and you have 5 mu, you can't get together. Because I have a lot of work in this field, twice as much as you. " When asked why he and the Wangs have 30 mu and 20 mu of land respectively, and they have cooperated for many years, Li Lingyi explained: "It is also very important that the personalities and natures of both sides fit together. There are also examples where people with good relationships don't care about the difference in the number of acres of land, but there are few examples. For example, the difference between two houses is 7 or 8 mu. Mainly because the two sides have no opinions. Both families are very angry. They feel that they are unreasonable, have suffered some losses, and leave it alone. If you care about these things, you won't do it in one place. " [[ 16] Zhang Si. Changes of villages in modern North China * * *-Historical anthropological thinking on cooperative farming habits [M]. Beijing: Commercial Press, 2005. ][ 16](p 170-p 1765438+)。 And once the "gap" between the two sides is beyond the scope of their "reasonable calculation", even if the feelings of the two sides are no matter how good, the mutual assistance relationship cannot be established.
Judging from the peasant groups participating in the above two kinds of mutual assistance and cooperation, in most areas, rich peasants have complete farm tools and livestock, and relatively few people participate in mutual assistance in labor; The poorer poor peasants and farm labourers lack the conditions to participate in mutual assistance; Only the middle peasants have both the conditions and the necessity to combine. For example, in Lengshuigou Village, Licheng County, farmers who own and cultivate about 20 acres or more of land generally have complete farm animals and farm tools, and there is no need to share them with others. In addition, farmers with less than five acres can't reach the goal because they don't have enough farm tools and farm animals. Therefore, farmers with 10 mu of cultivated land generally find a suitable object to engage in joint farming. "In Lujiazhuang," people without animals can't be partners ". [12] (Volume IV, p257) However, due to the different economic conditions in rural areas of Shandong, farmers at all levels have different levels of wealth, and rich farmers and poor farmers in some areas of Shandong also participate in "cooperation" or "partnership". 1943 in the investigation of junan and Ganyu counties 13 villages, the investigators noticed the situation of poor peasants participating in construction and "co-raising" before the Anti-Japanese War: "Most of the farm animals of landlords and rich peasants are cows and donkeys, while most of the middle peasants and poor peasants are calves from Xiao Lv, and at the same time, most of them each have one animal or one cow. In han cun, a cultural district in Huimin County with a low degree of social differentiation, even the "landlord" should cooperate with other families. Farmers with an area of less than 10 mu in the village generally can't raise livestock on the farm. Most middle peasants, who occupy an area of 10-20 mu, can't raise a cow independently, and some can only raise a donkey by themselves or two or even four guys can raise a cow together. Of the only two landlords in the village, only Han Youkui owns a full set of large farm tools, and A Niu Yi Donkeys can also form an independent breeding farm. Another so-called "landlord", the Han family, owns a cow, but only has large farm tools. Obviously, it is necessary to cooperate with other families in farming [[17] in the Registration Form of Land Movable Property Distribution in han cun [M]]. Zhang. Land right distribution, farm economy and village community: 1900- 1944.
(b) Mutual-help employees-change jobs and help workers get land.
Simply put, "job-hopping" means "exchanging manpower for cattle rights" Poor farmers who have no farm animals often exchange the right to use farm animals with rich landlords in this way. According to the data of China Rural Habits Survey, job-hopping in Shandong is only carried out in busy farming season, with short duration and small scale, and it is only a farming combination between two farmers. In the process of changing jobs, villagers adhere to the fair principle of "reciprocal exchange" and carry out exchange and mutual assistance activities on the basis of "reasonable calculation" of the transformation relationship between fields, labor and livestock. Although this calculation is not very accurate, the final result can satisfy both parties. However, at the time of the transformation between human and animal power, what is hidden behind this so-called "fairness" is the labor exploitation of the borrower by the owner of animal power. Moreover, in the process of "changing jobs", farmers who have no farm animals not only have to exchange their labor for the use of farm animals, but also are subject to the owners of farm animals when farming. Often, they can farm their own land after meeting the land farming needs of the owners of farm cattle. Guandi Village, Ju 'nan County, "A farmer with an acre of land of 12 uses other people's livestock to cultivate land, and besides paying for all the cattle and grass he produces and helping six workers, his own land has to be cultivated after the cattle owner" [18] Investigation and Research Office of Shandong Branch. Investigation on agricultural labor cooperation in Guandi village [m] .5438+ 1 1. The form of mutual assistance of "helping workers to bring land" is also very common in rural areas of Shandong in modern times. "Land-taking helpers are farmers who have insufficient cultivated land and surplus labor, but are unwilling or unable to rent their cultivated land to others. Instead, they work as ordinary long-term workers, negotiate with large farmers who live nearby, hire them for many years, cultivate all their fields and enjoy their production. Its annual salary is inversely proportional to the number of fields it carries. There are also subtle differences in the folk customs of domestic helpers in various counties. " Employers in Boxing County cultivate the fields brought by laborers like their own fields. All farm products brought by employees belong to ordinary workers. The employee's long-term salary is paid at the highest price, but the annual farming fee for the fields he brings is deducted. The annual farming fee deducted by employers in Jiaxiang County is about 50 cents per mu 1 yuan. If the cultivation fee of the land with him reaches the wage limit, no extra salary will be paid. In line with the principle of not delaying the employer's work, the helpers in Feicheng must bring their own food and drink. All the work in the fields brought by employees in Qingping County shall be borne by the employers, and the grain produced shall be owned by the employers, but the firewood shall be transferred together with the farm animals used. If the animals on the employer's farm are used, the firewood belongs to the employer; if the animals are not on the employer's farm, they do not belong to the employer. Zhuang farmers here can farm 29% a year, but the land cultivated by employees cannot exceed 10 mu. The situation in Gaotang County is similar to this. Dongping county's helper's back work is the same as that of the employer, and there is no need to pay for many things behind his back. Laiyang County and Enxian County also have ways to help the local labor force. Laiyang County is commonly known as "Dali" [19] Chen Zhengmo. Employment habits and supply and demand of agricultural workers in various provinces [M], Zhongshan Museum of Culture and Education, 1935. ] [ 19] (P37-P33)
Job-hopping, helping workers get land, has the nature of employee management. Under these two forms of mutual assistance, the rich peasants or landlords who own the means of production are in the dominant position, while the small peasants who lack the means of production are in the subordinate position, and the relationship between them is exploitation and exploitation.
The above-mentioned forms of labor mutual assistance, to a certain extent, supplement the labor and production tools that farmers lack, save their production and operation costs, and help maintain and develop farmers' small land management. However, limited by the social and economic development conditions at that time, this spontaneous mutual assistance and cooperation was only a means of subsistence for most farmers, and could not really realize the development of agricultural management scale. This is mainly reflected in the following aspects: first, farmers' spontaneous mutual assistance and cooperation is generally only attended by two or three families, which is small in scale and lacks stability. Second, the resources allocated by mutual assistance and cooperation are mostly limited to traditional production factors such as labor, livestock and farm tools, lacking the support of advanced technical factors. In the case of the basic stagnation of agricultural technology, the mutual cooperation between farmers can only increase the output of cultivated land through extra labor and capital, and its development direction is "too dense" agricultural development, rather than relying on technological progress to achieve economies of scale in agricultural growth. Third, farmers' mutual assistance is mostly concentrated in the production process, lacking cooperation in the sales and processing of agricultural products. In the period of economic underdevelopment, the scale of small agricultural land management is very fragile, and its ability to resist economic fluctuations is very limited. In order to resist economic risks, farmers should cooperate before and after childbirth. However, in modern Shandong, farmers' land management was scattered and their awareness of commodity economy was not strong. At the same time, they can't bear the organizational and institutional costs required for agricultural industrialization, which makes their mutual assistance limited to the production field and inevitably falls into the trap of "self-sufficiency".
Fourth, the "choice" of farmers from all walks of life in modern Shandong Province for mutual assistance in labor.
The choice of farmers at all levels for mutual assistance in land management depends on their economic strength and business logic based on economic strength.
In land management, rich peasants are people who pursue the maximization of profits. They strive to choose the most economical mode of production in land management and rationally allocate labor and production tools to increase agricultural income. In modern Shandong, rich peasants had abundant means of production, but due to underdeveloped management of employees, agricultural labor force was insufficient. In order to supplement the labor force, rich peasants often "use mutual labor to improve labor efficiency" [24](p756): Many rich peasants with rich animal power and farmers with insufficient animal power "change jobs", which not only supplements the labor force, but also improves the efficiency of livestock use; Rich farmers who lack animal power and farm tools also participate in cooperative labor such as joint farming and cooperative feeding.
Middle peasants are operators who pursue safety. On the one hand, they pursue profits and actively move closer to the rich peasants; On the other hand, we must ensure production and prevent becoming poor peasants. Middle peasants in Shandong are mainly yeomen, and the amount of means of production they have is between rich peasants and poor peasants. Compared with the rich peasants who have higher management level of employees and complete production tools than themselves, the middle peasants have more necessity of mutual assistance in labor; Compared with poor peasants who are seriously short of means of production, middle peasants have the advantage of mutual assistance in labor in economic conditions. The economic status of middle peasants also determines that they tend to choose labor mutual assistance without too much capital investment and super-economic exploitation to supplement the shortage of labor and production tools. Lengshuigou Village and Houxiazhai village, which are mentioned in the customary survey, are villages with a majority of middle peasants [farmers in Houxiazhai village account for 86.3%, farmers in Lengshuigou Village account for 9 1.4%, and middle peasants are the main farmers, so they are the majority in these two villages]. In these two villages, hitchhiking is the most common form of mutual assistance. Most of the "(villagers) in post-xiazhai village are equipped with furniture, more than half of them. If individuals can't solve it ... they have to think of this method, and almost 90% of farmers have furniture "[16](p96). In the 1940s, there were eighty or ninety groups of furniture in Lengshuigou Village, Licheng County [12] (Volume IV, p26).
For poor peasants, survival is the first priority compared with the pursuit of interests. In modern Shandong, the poor peasants had a serious shortage of means of production, but there was a surplus of labor. They are the main body of employees and tenants. Due to the limitation of economic conditions, poor farmers have fewer opportunities to participate in mutual assistance in labor, and they are often the beneficiaries of mutual assistance in relief or the exploited under mutual assistance in employment.
With the development of small land ownership in modern Shandong, the rural structure in Shandong gradually showed the trend of "middle agriculture". Before 1937, Shandong rich peasants accounted for 9.5% of the total population and 6.3% of the total households, middle peasants accounted for 42.98% of the total population and 36.63% of the total households, poor peasants accounted for 4 1.57%, and farm labourers accounted for 2.24%. In 1930s, the rich peasants in China accounted for about 6% of the total number of peasants, the middle peasants accounted for about 20% of the total number of households, and the poor farm labourers accounted for about 70% [[20] Duan Guoqing, Yue. On the Peasant Movement in Shandong during the Second Revolutionary Civil War [J], Shandong History Collection, 1983, (1). Generally speaking, in the proportion of farmers at all levels in Shandong, the proportion of middle peasants is the largest, and the proportion of rich peasants and middle peasants is greater than the national average [in the 1930s, the rich peasants accounted for about 6% of the total number of farmers and the middle peasants accounted for about 20% of the total number of households. ]。 According to the statistics of 274 typical villages in Shandong by Shandong Branch of China, poor peasants accounted for 44% of the total households, middle peasants accounted for 47.8%, rich peasants accounted for 0.63%, rich peasants accounted for 5.64%, and landlords accounted for 1.35%. This shows that the middle peasants in Shandong are still rising. As mentioned above, middle peasants are the main body of mutual assistance in labor [[2 1] Planning Department of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Central People's Government. Investigation on rural economy in China in the past two years [M]. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1952.
[2 1](p224). Therefore, the "middle peasants" of Shandong farmers in modern times highlighted the importance of mutual assistance in Shandong farmers' land management.