The Westernization Movement was originally named "Tongguang New Deal". After 1860, in the process of suppressing the revolution of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom jointly by China and foreign countries, a number of comprador and modern bureaucratic warlords gradually formed in the feudal groups of the Qing Dynasty. In their contacts with foreign capitalist powers, they not only thought that the contradiction between the Qing government and foreign invaders could be mediated and compromised, but also suppressed the resistance of the domestic people by "using foreign countries to help suppress", and they also adopted some capitalist production technologies to achieve the purpose of maintaining the crumbling feudal rule. These people were the westernization faction in power in the Qing government at that time. The westernization movement they engaged in from 65438 to 1960 was called the westernization movement. The so-called "Westernization" refers to everything related to foreign relations and exchanges, such as Westernization negotiations, signing treaties, sending overseas students, buying foreign guns, training troops (Beiyang, Fujian and Nanyang fleets) according to the "foreign law", learning foreign science, using machines, mining and setting up factories, etc.
After the Second Opium War, the internal and external diplomacy of the Qing Dynasty was struggling. Some enlightened officials in the ruling group advocated making use of advanced western production technology to make Qiang Bing rich, get rid of difficulties and safeguard the rule of the Qing Dynasty. 1860 65438+February Zeng Guofan said that at present, foreign forces can help suppress grain transportation and reduce temporary worries; In the future, you can learn foreign skills, build processing ships, and receive permanent benefits. In the second year, he gave full play to the above viewpoints and advocated buying foreign naval guns, visiting skilled craftsmen, practicing first, and then trying to build them. However, in a year or two, steamboats will become a favorite thing for officials and people. At this time, we can suppress (refer to the Taiping army) and twist (twist the army), with saving as the first priority. 1862 After Li Hongzhang arrived in Shanghai, he got help from foreign invaders, trained foreign artillery corps and set up foreign artillery bureau. In his view, the fighting capacity of the Qing army is often several times that of foreign enemies, but it still can't win. The reason is that the weapons are not good and there are too many guns (yǔ). If we can use firearms to compete with the West, it will be more than enough to pacify China and there will be no shortage of foreign enemies. From now on, we can finally achieve autonomy (Draft of Friends of Li Wenzhong Public Rights Book, Volume 3). Hey? Seeing that Zeng and Li had learned to build foreign naval guns, they decided to send someone to learn. They said in the memorial that governing the country should be self-reliant, self-reliance should be based on practice, and practice should be based on making tools. "I can be self-reliant and live in peace." "Preparing for Foreign Affairs"). the westernization group
Hey? Some people think that as long as some advanced western technologies are added to the feudal system, people can be suppressed and feudal rule can last for a long time. They also believe that preparing for westernization will definitely get the support of the great powers. In order to save the ruling crisis of the Qing government, some members of the feudal ruling class, such as Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zuo and Zhang Zhidong, advocated introducing and imitating western weapons and equipment, learning western science and technology and establishing modern enterprises. For example, Zeng Guofan's Anqing Inner Ordnance Institute, Li Hongzhang's Jiangnan Manufacturing General Administration and China Merchants (Shanghai), the Fuzhou Shipping Bureau on the left, Zhang Zhidong's Hanyang Iron Works and Hubei Weaving Layout. These officials are called "Westernization School".
old school
Cixi photo
The die-hards, led by Empress Dowager Cixi, sang that "the way to build a country lies in respecting ceremony, not tactics, and the fundamental purpose lies in people's hearts, not skills", and advocated that "loyalty is the armor and ceremony is the god" to resist foreign aggression. The Westernization School opposes the old school, which is considered to be "very advanced and the argument is correct". However, "taking propriety and righteousness as the backbone and loyalty as the armor is not conducive to self-improvement. In the past two or three decades, Chinese and foreign officials have failed to control the enemy and only used empty words to fill their responsibilities, which led to the changes in Geng Shen. " Westernization and die-hards attacked each other and the struggle was fierce. The Prime Minister's Office is the central organization to promote the Westernization Movement. However, the influence of the Westernization School is mainly not in the central government of the Qing Dynasty, but in the governors and governors who hold local real power. Cixi understood that in order to maintain the dominance of the Qing Dynasty, she had to rely on the powerful Westernization School which was appreciated by foreign invaders. So she temporarily adopted the strategy of supporting Westernization.
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The Westernization School, which presided over and advocated Westernization, helped Li Hongzhang's government in the process of suppressing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom revolution.
A faction of the ruling clique in the Qing Dynasty. At first, the number was small, but their strength increased day by day. In the imperial court, he was the minister of the two prime ministers' offices, Qi Yi and Wen Xiang. At the local level, Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zuo, Zhang Zhidong and others hold real power. Among them, Xiang School headed by Zeng Guofan, Huai School headed by Li Hongzhang and later Zhang Zhidong School had great influence.
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Aisingiorro Yixin
Aisingiorro Yixin (1833- 1898), Aisingiorro. The sixth son of Daoguang Emperor, the half-brother of Xianfeng Emperor, 185 1 (the first year of Xianfeng) was made Prince Gong. 1In September, 860, Emperor Xianfeng fled to Jehol after the British and French allied forces captured the Baliqiao in Tongzhou, leaving Yixin as the "supervisor and peace bureau" in Beijing. 101On October 24th and 25th, Yixin successively exchanged the ratification documents of Tianjin Treaty with the representatives of Britain and France, and concluded the Beijing Treaty. 186 1 year 1 month, the office of international affairs of the prime minister was established, and Yi Xin, Gui Liang and Wen Xiang were appointed as ministers of the General Administration. In August, Emperor Xianfeng died in Jehol. 165438+ 10, CreditEase colluded with Cixi, used Shengbao, which was heavily stationed in Beijing, to launch a coup, and dismissed eight ministers of Zanxiang government affairs with Su Shun as the core. From then on, Cixi listened to politics, took the heart as the king of deliberation, and was in charge of the military department and the prime minister's yamen. Jackson Yee advocated "borrowing foreign soldiers to help suppress" and suppressed the Taiping Revolution. Support Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang, Zuo and other local powerful groups to organize modern military industry and carry out westernization activities, and become the leaders of the Qing court center to preside over westernization. 1865, due to the suspicion of Cixi, he was removed from the position of reviewing Wang. 1884 during the sino-French war, he was removed from all his posts. 1894 He was re-appointed as the Prime Minister's yamen minister, and was later ordered to supervise the military. 1898 died at the beginning of the Reform Movement of 1898.
Zeng Guofan
Zeng Guofan
Zeng Guofan (1811-1872), a native of Xiangxiang, Hunan, was born in a landlord family. 1838 Jinshi, 1839 assistant minister. He advocated Zhu Cheng's Neo-Confucianism. 1853, Emperor Xianfeng appointed him Assistant Minister Ying Yong to supervise the armed forces of Hunan landlords Ying Yong. He established a landlord's armed forces, and all the soldiers and generals were from Hunan, so he was called "Xiang Army" or "Xiang Yong". Xiang army consolidated its interior with regional and feudal relations as a link; Armed with Zhu Cheng's Neo-Confucianism; Boost morale with trophies and official titles; Generals are mostly selected from so-called landlord intellectuals such as "studying in Confucianism" and "students". 1854 In February, the Xiang Army became an army of about 17000 people. After the collapse of the camp in the south of the Yangtze River, the Qing government promoted Zeng Guofan as the governor of the two rivers, in charge of military affairs in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui and Jiangxi provinces. Zeng Guofan advocated "catching more and killing faster" to suppress the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom army. Zeng Guofan was called "shaved his head" by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Army. He organized Westernization, established a new arms industry, made weapons and armed the Xiang army. 1864, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement was successfully suppressed. The Xiang school headed by Zeng Guofan has become the most powerful school in the local area. 1870 When he was governor of Zhili, he investigated and dealt with Tianjin religious plans, which was considered to be flattering foreign countries, betraying the country, killing people and arousing public anger. 1872, died in Nanjing.
Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang (1823— 190 1) was a minister in the late Qing Dynasty and a local representative of the Westernization School. Word Shao Quan, from Hefei, Anhui, Daoguang Jinshi. 1853 organized youth league training in his hometown to help suppress the Taiping Army, which failed repeatedly. He took refuge in Zeng Guofan and became his staff. 186 1 year, Huai Army was organized as Xiang Army. 1April 862, Li Hongzhang and his Huai army moved to Shanghai. On April 25th, the Qing government appointed Li Hongzhang as the agent of Jiangsu Governor. In Shanghai, Li Hongzhang hired foreign invading army leaders to train the Huai Army, recruited foreign craftsmen to make new arms, and strengthened the military strength of the Huai Army. 1862, the Huai army cooperated to suppress the Taiping Army in Jiangsu and Zhejiang. 1865, the Qing government appointed Li Hongzhang as the governor of the two rivers. In the following year 165438+ October, he was appointed as an imperial envoy to suppress the nian army. After the suppression of the Nian Army uprising, the Huai Army became stronger and stronger. A large number of Huai troops are entrenched in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, and another part is stationed in Zhili and Shandong. Li Hongzhang's influence spread all over the Yangtze River and Yellow River. 1870, at the recommendation of Zeng Guofan, Li Hongzhang succeeded Zeng Guofan as the governor of Zhili and minister of Beiyang, and took charge of military, economic and diplomatic power, becoming a pivotal figure in the ruling class of the Qing Dynasty. Since the 1970s, he has established an arsenal and Beiyang Navy. At the same time, he also set up some civilian industries, such as China Maritime Bureau, Kaiping Coal Mine, Tianjin Telegraph Bureau, Jinyu Railway and Shanghai Textile Layout. For foreign aggression, in the big environment, he had to compromise and give in, and was regarded as surrendering and betraying the country. From the 1970s of 19 to his death, the Qing government signed a series of treaties with foreign invaders, most of which were entrusted to him or signed by him. For example, the Sino-British Yantai Treaty, the Sino-French New Testament, the treaty of shimonoseki, the Xin Chou Treaty and so on. In the 1990s, he was considered to have accepted huge bribes from Russia twice, totaling 3.5 million rubles, and signed the Sino-Russian Secret Treaty and the Land Lease Treaty with Russia to betray China's territorial sovereignty. It has hindered the development of national rejuvenation. But now we also need to objectively evaluate people from many aspects. In some ways, he can be regarded as the scapegoat of Empress Dowager Cixi. It is said that after signing treaty of shimonoseki, he vowed never to set foot on Japanese soil again in his life. Even if he met Japan later, Japanese officials invited him to have a rest in Jamlom, but he refused. But in any case, the collapse of the Manchu government is a historical necessity.
Zuo Tang Zong
Zuo (1812-1885) was a minister in the late Qing Dynasty and a local representative of the Westernization School. The word season is high, Hunan Xiangyin people. 1860 was recommended by Zeng Guofan and led some Xiang troops. He once recruited about 5,000 people to form the Chu Army, from which Zuo Xiang Army was formed. At the beginning of 1862, recommended by Zeng Guofan, he was promoted to the governor of Zhejiang, and organized the "Chang Jiejun" with the French Communist Party, and was trapped in Ningbo and Shaoxing. 1866, Fuzhou Shipping Bureau was established as the governor of Fujian and Zhejiang. The following year, he was transferred to the governor of Shaanxi but Gansu. "Although I went to the west, my heart is still in the east." During the period of supervising Shaanxi and Gansu, Lanzhou Manufacturing Bureau and Lanzhou Weaving Bureau were established because of the abundant wool in the northwest. From 65438 to 0875, he served as an imperial minister, supervising Xinjiang military affairs. The following year, he led the army into Xinjiang to attack the reactionary regime in Agubo. 1878, the whole territory of Xinjiang except Yili was recovered, and it was suggested to establish Xinjiang provinces and develop Xinjiang. 188 1 year, promoted to military affairs minister, transferred to liangjiang governor. 1884 During the Sino-French War, he was the main war faction and supervised Fujian military affairs. The following year, he resigned due to illness and died. The Fuzhou Shipping Bureau, which he founded, abolished foreign workers after the 1970s, which was different from the situation that Li Hongzhang's Jiangnan Manufacturing General Administration said that foreigners should be foreign craftsmen, and reflected his ideological characteristics of running westernization by himself.
Zhangzhidong
Zhangzhidong
Zhang Zhidong (1837— 1909) was born in Nanpi, Zhili (now Nanpi, Hebei). 1863 Jinshi, 1882 served as governor of Shanxi. When the Sino-French War broke out, Zhang Zhidong advocated a decisive battle with France. The Qing court made him the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, and Zhang donated 3,200 taels of silver to Liu Yongfu, the general who fought against France, and paid an audience with Feng Zicai, the former magistrate of Guangxi. Feng Zicai defeated the French army in Nanguan and lang son, and Zhang Zhidong became famous. 1889 served as governor of Huguang, and built Hubei weaving layout, Hanyang Ironmaking Plant and Hanyang Arsenal, etc. In Hubei, he became a westernization figure on a par with Li Hongzhang. In the Reform Movement, Zhang Zhidong joined the "Strong Society". When he learned that Empress Dowager Cixi opposed the political reform, Zhang Zhidong withdrew from the "Strong Society". And ordered to ban the "strong magazine" in Shanghai and suppress the reform movement in Hunan. After the rise of the Boxer Rebellion, Zhang Zhidong advocated restraining pain. After the Qing court declared war, Zhang Zhidong, Governor Liu Kunyi of Liangjiang and others entered into a so-called "Southeast Mutual Protection" charter with Britain. 1908, Zhang Zhidong was ordered to supervise the Guangdong-Han Railway and the Sichuan-Han Railway in Hubei, and died in June the following year. Posthumous title Wen Xiang, whose manuscript series is The Complete Works of Zhang Wenxiang.
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The first railway in China was born.
The content of Westernization Movement is very complicated, involving military affairs, politics, economy, education and diplomacy. , and in the name of "self-improvement", the main content is to establish the military industry and other enterprises around the military industry, and to establish Lu Haijun with new weapons and equipment. Since the 1960s, modern military industries such as Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, Fuzhou Shipping Bureau and Anqing Inner Ordnance Institute have been established one after another. Among them, Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau is the largest government-run military factory in China. Founded by Li Hongzhang in Shanghai on 1865. There are about 2,000 people in the factory, mainly manufacturing guns, ammunition, mines and other military materials, as well as ships. 1867. Fuzhou Shipping Bureau is the largest shipyard founded by the Qing government. It was founded in Fuzhou by Zuo Yu 1866. There are about 1700 people in the whole plant, mainly manufacturing large and small warships. Anqing Inner Ordnance Institute is the earliest modern arsenal run by the Qing government. It was founded by Zeng Guofan in Anqing on February 186 165438. This factory is small and mainly produces bullets, gunpowder, shells and other weapons. In addition to establishing the above-mentioned factories, we also send overseas students to learn technology. However, the Westernization School encountered some difficulties in the process of establishing military industry, the most important of which were the difficulties in capital, raw materials, fuel and transportation. Therefore, under the slogan of "seeking wealth", the Westernization School began to set up civil enterprises such as China Merchants, Kaiping Mining Bureau, Tianjin Telegraph Bureau, Tangshan Xugezhuang Railway, Shanghai Weaving Layout and Lanzhou Weaving Bureau in the 1970s. At the same time, the Westernization School also began to plan coastal defense, and initially established the navies of Nanyang, Beiyang and Fujian in 1884. After the Westernization clique took control of the naval yamen, it further expanded beiyang fleet and built Lushun Wharf and Ahava Military Port.
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Anqing internal ordnance research institute
186 1 year, Zeng Guofan established a military industry in Anqing to manufacture modern weapons, which was also the first military industry founded by the Westernization School imitating western weapons. Mainly manufacturing bullets, gunpowder, blasting guns, etc. "Interior" refers to the setting of Anqing Army to which this ordnance belongs. 1864, after the Qing army captured Nanjing, the factory was moved from Anqing to Nanjing and renamed Jinling Machinery Manufacturing Bureau.
Jiangnan manufacturing bureau
Group photo of all the soldiers in Zhiyuan
Also known as Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, it was founded by Li Hongzhang in Shanghai on 1865. /kloc-moved from Hongkou to Gaochang Temple in 0/867. After continuous expansion, it became the largest military industry of the Qing government. The technology and mechanical equipment of this factory mainly depend on foreign countries. Besides making guns and ammunition, it also makes machines and ships. /kloc-in 0/905, the shipbuilding part became independent and was called "Jiangnan Wharf", and the arsenal part was called Manufacturing Bureau. Later, it was renamed Jiangnan Shipyard and Shanghai Arsenal respectively. It is the largest modern industry run by the Westernization School. It uses self-made steel to imitate muskets, catching up with the level of new German muskets in the late19th century, and its smokeless powder has reached the advanced level in the world. However, the General Administration of Jiangnan Manufacturing was officially run, and the funds were allocated by the Qing government. Production does not count as cost, does not consider economic benefits, and lacks development motivation. It adopted feudal yamen-style management and restrained workers by managing the army. Workers lack enthusiasm for production and the quality of products cannot be guaranteed.
Fuzhou navigational affairs management bureau
Fuzhou Shipping Bureau is the most well-equipped new shipyard operated by the Qing government. 1866 was founded by Zuo in Mawei, Fuzhou. Hire foreigners as technicians. Mainly composed of iron works, docks and schools, it was seriously damaged in the 1884 Mawei naval battle. Although it has recovered, it is not as good as before. After the Revolution of 1911, it was renamed the Naval Shipyard.
Hanyang iron works
Westernization Movement
1In the spring of 889, Zhang Zhidong, Governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, planned to establish an ironmaking plant in Guangzhou. In the same year, he was transferred to the governor of Huguang, and the ironworks moved to Hanyang. 1890 Construction started under Dabie Mountain. 1893 Hanyang Iron Works was basically completed, with six large factories, four small factories and two ironmaking furnaces. 1894 was put into production, and it was all official at the beginning. From preparation to 1895, * * * spent more than 5.8 million. After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1896, the Qing government was unable to raise funds, so it was changed to "official supervision and commercial office" in 1896. On the eve of the Revolution of 1911, Hanyang Iron Works had about 3,000 workers with an annual output of 70,000 tons. During the period of War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression, some equipment of Hanyang Iron Works was moved to Chongqing by the Kuomintang government and Dadukou Iron and Steel Works was established. After liberation, it belongs to the people.
Ship investment promotion bureau
A ship of China Merchants
Referred to as "China Merchants". The earliest shipping enterprise established in China. 1872 (11th year of Tongzhi in Qing Dynasty) Li Hongzhang was invited to organize. 1873 1 holds. The General Administration is located in Shanghai, with branches in Yantai, Hankou, Tianjin, Fuzhou, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Yokohama, Kobe, Luzon and Singapore. 1885 (in the 11th year of Guangxu) was changed to official supervision and commercial office. 1909 (Xuantongyuannian) is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. 19 12 was changed to commercial office, renamed as Commercial China Merchants Steamship Company, and later renamed as Commercial China Merchants Steamship Co., Ltd. 1932, the Kuomintang government was nationalized and renamed as State-owned China Merchants Bureau, which was under the Ministry of Communications. During the War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression period, the General Administration moved to Hongkong first and then to Chongqing. Moved back to Shanghai after the war. 1947 * * has 460 ships, exceeding 330,000 tons. China merchants steamship co., ltd was established in 1948. 195 1 changed its name to China People's Steamship Corporation, and Hong Kong still retains its old name. China merchants group co., ltd was established in 1985.
Tongwenguan
People who have been engaged in translation for a long time in the history of our country, but the formal establishment of foreign language schools was not until the Qing government 1862 that the Wentong Museum was established in Beijing. When the Qing government signed the treaty of nanking, Tianjin Treaty and Beijing Treaty with foreign countries, even China people who knew foreign languages could not be found, and they were deceived by the invaders. 186 1 year? Please set up a foreign language school to train foreign language talents and diplomatic talents. 1862 students of Wentong Museum
In August 2008, Emperor Tongzhi officially approved the establishment of "Shi Jing Wentong Pavilion". Besides Chinese, students mainly study foreign languages. There are foreign teachers, such as Paul Teng in Britain, Smile and Billigan in France, Berlin in Russia, Ding Weiliang in the United States, John Flair and Harrington. Ding Weiliang served as head teacher from 1869, and was in charge of education affairs for 30 years. Hurd, the chief tax official, also serves as an inspector, actually controlling the power of funds and personnel. Wentong Library is completely managed by regular schools, and English Library, Russian Library, German Library and Oriental (Japanese) Library are opened one after another. Only the children of the Eight Banners under the age of 13 and 14 will be recruited, and then Manchu students aged 15-25 and Manchu students of any age will be recruited. The study period is initially set at 3 years, which is divided into two types according to 1876: one is students of foreign languages, astronomy, chemistry, geodesy and other disciplines, with an academic system of 8 years; First, older students who study astronomy, chemistry, geodesy and other disciplines only by Chinese translation have a five-year academic system. 1867 added mathematics, chemistry, international law, medical physiology, astronomy, physics, foreign history and geography. The maximum number of students is 120. Most of the graduates are translators, diplomats and officials of other westernization agencies of the Qing government. There is a printing factory that translates and prints books on the public law of nations and mathematics, physics, literature and history. 1902 wentong museum merged into Shi Jing university hall.
After the founding of New China, in the 1950s, the aforementioned two books, Fan Wenlan and Hu Sheng, completely denied the views of the Westernization Movement and the Westernization School, and naturally occupied a dominant position. 1954 August, Modern History of China was published in the 9th edition. Fan Lao particularly emphasized in his explanation: "The life of the traitor Zeng Guofan was written when I was in Yan 'an, from 1944. Zeng Guofan is the founder of reactionaries in the past century, but his hypocrisy has great influence on society. His successor, public enemy Chiang Kai-shek, praised him as a "saint" and regarded him as an idol who poisoned the youth and deceived the masses. In order to clarify the chaotic thoughts of some people at that time, it is necessary to expose Zeng Guofan, the traitor executioner. This article is written under such circumstances. I still attach it to the back of the book. "1956 65438+ In February, Mou Anshi's Westernization Movement came out. In the introduction, the book clearly points out: "The so-called Westernization Movement (or' Guang Guang New Deal') is a movement in which the rulers of the Qing Dynasty, with the support of Han landlords and bureaucrats and foreign invaders, sold out the interests of the people of China for the purpose of preserving the remnants of the feudal regime in exchange for foreign guns and ships to arm themselves. There is no doubt that this is a reactionary, traitorous and military-centered movement. "This further condemned the death penalty of the Westernization Movement. During this period, although many works paid considerable attention to the economic activities of the Westernization Movement, they did not occupy a major position. It is worth noting that at that time, many historical materials about Westernization activities were published one after another, which prepared the conditions for further discussion.
1debate in the 1960s:
This debate was held in the theoretical edition of Wen Wei Po 196 1, 65438+February 28th, 1962, 65438+1October, 12, 2 1. These three articles, originally three paragraphs of an article, were published in three articles because they were too long. I was transferred from the government to Shanghai Economic Research Institute on 1957 to engage in scientific research. At that time, I was responsible for compiling the history of Jiangnan Shipyard and writing a chapter of Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau. From this, I began to contact the Westernization Movement and the Westernization School. As I have no research on Westernization Movement, I can only try my best to belittle the historical position and role of Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau in modern China on the basis of the total denial of Fan Wenlan and Mou Anshi at the beginning of this book. Later, I carefully read the China Historical Society and the People's Publishing House 1959, the 8-volume Westernization Movement, a series of modern history of China. In the face of historical facts, I began to doubt the total negation theory, gradually formed my own views, wrote the first draft of the article, and put forward the discussion at the meeting of the Economic Institute. At that time, many colleagues advised me not to publish it easily to avoid asking for trouble. At that time, the CPC Central Committee was preparing to hold an enlarged meeting of 7,000 people, and the political atmosphere was relatively relaxed. Zheng Xinyong, the head of the theoretical edition of Wen Wei Po, asked for an essay to enliven the academic atmosphere, so I revised the first draft of the article and gave it to him for publication.
Personal opinion:
At that time, the main views on the Westernization Movement had initially formed a two-point theory that has been adhered to since then, that is, its historical position and role in the modern history of China had both a reactionary and negative side and a progressive and positive side, which should be taken into account at the same time and not neglected. The reason for choosing the above three topics is to highlight its progressive and positive side unilaterally, so as to break the dreary situation of one-sided comprehensive negation theory and facilitate in-depth discussion. In all fairness, this two-point theory is not an "invention". As mentioned above, Lv Zhenyu put it forward as early as 1940s. It is also mentioned in the preface of China's modern history data series "Westernization Movement": "The Westernization Movement, which lasted for more than 30 years, also played a certain role in the history of China in the second half of the 19th century"; My article only emphasizes and highlights it. After the publication of the article, as we all know, it caused great controversy in the new China historiography circle. Nearly 50 articles were published in newspapers and periodicals all over the country, most of which disagreed with my point of view, and only a few supporters, which shows the great influence of the total negation theory. At first, this discussion was a normal academic debate. Later, because Chairman the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China repeatedly emphasized class and class struggle at Beidaihe Conference and Beijing Conference, the political atmosphere became tense, and some articles went online indefinitely, which turned into siege and criticism, forcing me to remain silent. This argument has to stop. Nevertheless, this debate has had a great impact on the theory of total negation, which provides a basis for a comprehensive and in-depth study of the Westernization Movement in the next stage. Regarding this dispute, I also made a detailed and appropriate comment in the fourth quarter of the aforementioned chapter of Xuwen, and I agree with it. During the ten years of turmoil, under the bad influence of the "innuendo historiography" of the Gang of Four, Huang Yifeng and I were labeled as "beautifying the Westernization School" and suffered various kinds of torture, which is no longer within the academic scope.
A new debate in the new era:
1978 The spirit of emancipating the mind and seeking truth from facts advocated by the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Party not only opened up a new historical period for China's four modernizations, but also created a good social environment for the study of the Westernization Movement, which led to unprecedented new debates, new situations and new achievements in this study. Let's talk about the new debate first. This new debate is the inevitable continuation and development of the debate in the 1960s in the new era. Fortunately, the fuse of this new debate was ignited by "Re-evaluation of Westernization Movement" (Historical Research, No.2, 1979) co-authored by Huang Yifeng and me. 1978 In the second half of the year, the editorial department of Historical Research met with Huang Yifeng and me to reevaluate the Westernization Movement. After submitting the manuscript, they were not satisfied with our two-point theory, and suggested deleting or compressing the negative side of the reaction to highlight the positive side of progress. We didn't agree to change it, so they organized Xu Tai to write "Comment on Westernization Movement", which was published at the same time as our article and discussed with us. Then we published "The Positive Role of Westernization Movement Should be Properly Appraised —— Answer to Comrade Xu Tailai" in Historical Research No.6 1980. So this new debate began. The lineup of the new debate is: Xu Tailai, his teacher Li He, on the one hand, thinks that the Westernization Movement is a progressive movement in modern China, on the same footing as the Reform Movement of 1898 and the Revolution of 1911, and criticizes the reactionary and negative side of our Westernization Movement-the product of five evils and three bad consequences. Huang Yifeng and I think that the Westernization Movement has both a progressive side and a reactionary side, and the reactionary side is the main one. We don't agree to call it a progressive movement. In this way, my position in the new debate has changed from a "radical" who opposed the total negation theory in the 1960 s to a "conservative" who opposed the total affirmation theory, which is somewhat dramatic. In this new debate, the style of study has made great progress compared with the sixties, and there has really been a gratifying situation in which a hundred schools of thought contend and speak freely. This is a good style of study conducive to academic development.
Academic seminar:
Talk about the new situation. This mainly refers to the grand occasion of holding seven consecutive national academic seminars on Westernization Movement. The first symposium on Westernization Movement was initiated by the History Department of Jilin University and the editorial department of its journal in February 1980 and held in Changchun. The theme of the conference is the historical position and role of the Westernization Movement. Nearly 50 scholars attended the meeting, and Li was the host. After the meeting, a special collection of discussions on the Westernization Movement was published, with 24 papers in total. The second conference was held in Shanghai East China Normal University in the winter of 1982, presided over by Xia Dongyuan, attended by more than 70 scholars and submitted more than 70 papers. The theme of the meeting is still the historical position and role of the Westernization Movement, and the discussion atmosphere is more enthusiastic than the first meeting. The third meeting was held in Lanzhou in August, 1985, chaired by Du. The theme of the conference is the nature and function of westernization enterprises. Nearly 90 scholars attended the meeting and submitted more than 60 papers. The fourth meeting was held in Shantou University on February 1987, co-chaired by Li, who was transferred to the vice president of Shantou University, and Du, who was transferred to the head of the history department of Shantou University. Nearly 80 scholars attended the meeting and submitted more than 50 papers. The theme of the meeting is to comment on westernization figures. The fifth meeting was held in Dongying City, Shandong Province on June 1989, and was presided over by Kong Lingren of Shandong University. 130 More than 30 scholars attended the meeting and submitted more than 90 papers. The theme of the conference is the Westernization Movement and the modernization process of China. After the meeting, the anthology was published. This is the biggest of the five sessions. The sixth meeting was held in Yichang Institute of Water Conservancy in May 2002, and was presided over by Pi of Wuhan Academy of Social Sciences. The theme of the conference is Westernization Movement and Early Urban Development. 10 Many scholars attended the meeting and submitted more than 80 papers.
The Westernization Movement was the earliest start of China's modernization.