/kloc-from the second half of the 8th century to the first half of the 9th century, German classical philosophy gave birth to Kant, who lived for 80 years. In terms of time, Hume (171-1776, Scottish philosopher, economist and historian) is 65438 years older than Kant. Kant's thought is really mature enough to respond to Hume's query. You can regard Hume as a pioneer of Kant. Although their age difference is only 13 years, it is true that the most important development of Kant's thought is in the book Critique of Pure Reason after the age of 57. The historical background of German classical philosophy: Germany lags far behind other western European countries politically and economically. Why? After Charlemagne's Frankish kingdom was divided into East Frankish and West Frankish, it gradually formed the predecessor of France and Germany, the holy Roman Empire of the German nation, and the First Empire. Germans wear this big hat, but Germany has been in a state of separatism for a long time. Although it is a nominally unified country, a single emperor is only one of many kings at most, and his power is very limited. In Kant's time, this situation remained until 187 1 year and1the second half of the 9th century. Prussia defeated the French invasion in the Franco-Prussian War, and finally Prussia unified Germany and called it the Second Reich. In other words, Kant is a country that is nominally called Germany, but in fact it is not unified, so you think this is the fundamental reason for Germany's political and economic backwardness. But in such a period, many great men appeared together, such as Mozart and Beethoven in music; Goethe and Schiller in poetry and literature; Philosophically, Kant, Fichte and Hegel; This is an era when cultural giants come forth in large numbers. Why is Germany so backward, but it has entered a period of prosperity in culture, and even became the century of Germans in Europe from 65438 to 2008? In addition to the relative independence of ideology, Europe also has the cultural concept of Greater Europe, which is one of the reasons for the late establishment of the European Union. There are many things that influence each other in culture. That is to say, although Germany is backward economically and politically, culturally, its contacts with countries such as Britain and France are not backward, that is to say, the cultural interaction between these countries can make it stand at the forefront of thought.

The thoughts of German philosophers are obscure. Lenin said when reading Hegel's Logic that this is the best way to treat insomnia. But don't think that this abstract and obscure language has nothing to do with reality. Hegel said that the task of philosophy is to understand what exists, because what exists is reason. Personally, everyone is a child of his time. The same is true of philosophy, which is the era it grasps in thought. It means that philosophy participates in the spirit of the times. At least in his time, it is hard to say whether this is the case in our time. We know that in the second half of the19th century, especially in the 20th century, after the discipline was institutionalized, philosophy became one of many disciplines, and it also developed towards specialization and technicalization. The following problem is that the readership becomes smaller and only experts and scholars can understand it. So, how does philosophy exert its influence on society? Philosophy books must be read by people. If you don't want natural science to become a product, it's easy for everyone to use it. If you want to use philosophy, you must understand it and think about its function. Therefore, philosophy did participate in shaping the spirit of the times in history, although it was really obscure.

Kant was born in Konigsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia), a remote and backcountry far from Germany. After World War II, this place was allocated to Russia, but it is also far from Russia. It is an enclave in Lithuania, Poland and Belarus. On the map, Konigsberg and Germany are separated by Poland, so why is Kant said to be German? Because in Kant's time, most of Poland belonged to East Prussia, and Konigsberg was the capital of East Prussia.

Kant never left his hometown in his life. He was born in poverty, his father was a saddle, and he was in poor health after birth. All the girls born by Kant's mother before Kant survived and all the boys died, because the vitality of newborn babies and boys is far weaker than that of baby girls. Kant was in poor health, but his mother tried every means to arouse his spiritual thirst for knowledge, so Kant lived to be 80 years old all his life. Today, we say this is a miracle. This miracle has a lot to do with one of his own great experiments. He made a strict schedule for himself from a very young age, as strict as a clock. This may not apply to everyone, but Kant did live to be 80 years old. In fact, Kant is only 1.57 meters tall, and he is a dwarf among Europeans with congenital deficiency. He mechanically left a good story. It is said that his neighbor watched Kant go out for a walk at half past two to set his watch. Only once did Kant not come out. It turned out that he was fascinated by Rousseau's books. No nap, no walk after nap. There are two people who directly influenced Kant's thought, one is Hume and the other is Rousseau. Kant was respected in his hometown, and tens of thousands of people saw him off when he died.

Kant's thought, 1724- 1804, 1755, because I didn't graduate from a poor university, I went back to school and applied for a master's degree with my thesis, and applied for a teaching position with my thesis. He was employed by the Philosophy Department of the University of Konigsberg, but according to the German system, he was called an supernumerary teacher or unpaid lecturer, which meant that his level was recognized. He talked about almost all subjects, which made Kant well-read and knowledgeable. Many people visited Kant and Konigsberg and became famous. Although Kant was single all his life, he was very sociable and set aside reception time. Until 1770, Kang Decai successfully applied for the title of professor at the age of 46. Professor's inaugural thesis "On the Forms and Principles of Feeling and Meaning", at this time, Kant's critical philosophy has sprouted, so people often draw a clear line with this year. 1770 is the critical period in the early stage, followed by the critical period. The so-called criticism is due to Kant's three most important works: Critique of Pure Reason, Critique of Practical Reason and Critique of Judgment. In fact, Kant was already famous in the pre-critical period. 1755 published General History of Nature and Theory of Celestial Bodies, which were translated into An Introduction to the Development of the Universe during the Cultural Revolution. Engels said that Kant opened the first gap in metaphysics. Because Kant explained the origin of the solar system completely with Newton's law in that book, it is called Kant-Laplace Nebula Hypothesis in the history of science. But the maturity of his thought should be after the critical period. After 1770, 1 1 year, until 178 1 year, Kant published his first book, Critique of Pure Reason, at the age of 57. Since then, in sixteen years, he has published Critique of Pure Reason (1781-kloc-0/787), Introduction to Future Metaphysics (1783) and Introduction to Moral Metaphysics (1783). Critique of Judgment (1790), Religion in Simple Reason (1793), Moral Education (1797). Kant and Hegel are both very important in the history of western philosophy, and their books are also difficult to read, but their influence is different. Kant's philosophy is the beginning of modern philosophy and Hegel's philosophy is the end of classical philosophy. Hegel's philosophy is great, summing up the previous philosophy, but after Hegel, philosophy turned, and no one left Hegel's road, so he was the end. However, every aspect of this problem is inextricably linked with Kant.

Notes on Kant's Copernican Revolution in the Lecture of "Wisdom of Western Philosophy" (Ⅱ)

Today, let's get down to business and discuss the twelfth lecture of Kant-Copernicus Revolution. In this lecture, I mainly want to talk about three issues: first, the problem of Kant's philosophy; Second, the Copernican revolution; Third, the overall description of critical philosophy. Everyone has been listening, and there will be a feeling that I am more aware of the problem. In other words, to understand a philosopher's thoughts, we must first know what problems he faces and what problems he solves, and then how he solves them. Under what theoretical background did Kant think about his solution? First look at the problems of Kant's philosophy. I summarize it as three problems: crisis of rationality, loss of freedom and metaphysical problems. Our modern philosophy can better understand Kant's problem from Descartes' conversation, that is, scientific knowledge has not been solved between universality and inevitability, empiricism and rationalism. Therefore, we call the discussion between empiricism and rationalism about the source and scientific basis of scientific knowledge a discussion between empiricism and rationalism, which is in trouble for various reasons. Hume's skepticism, in particular, actually led the answer to this question into a dead end. I remember when I talked about medieval philosophy, because medieval philosophy tried to reconcile reason and belief and tried to make philosophy serve theology. The final possible result, the failure of final reconciliation, either shakes the foundation of faith or makes people lose confidence in reason. In the middle ages, it was actually the latter, because for devout Christians, even reason could not prove the existence of God.