China examination occupies a special position in the world, mainly because China has a long history of examination. China is the birthplace of the examination system, and examination is a great invention of China. In the history of examinations in China, the most important thing is the imperial examination. Imperial Examination, as the primary content of China's ancient humanistic activities, has a wide and far-reaching influence. It not only occupies an important position in the history of China, but also spreads abroad, which has an important influence on the civilization process in East Asia and the world. The influence on East Asian countries means that Japan imitated the imperial examination in the 8th century to10th century, and Korea (North Korea) and Vietnam also implemented the imperial examination system for a long time. The influence on the west means that Britain, France, Germany, the United States and other countries have established the civil service examination system with reference to the imperial examination.
East Asian imperial examination cultural circle
Among Japan, South Korea and Vietnam, Japan is the first country to imitate the imperial examination, and it is also the country that has implemented the imperial examination system for the shortest time. During the 7th and 8th centuries, China's legal system was introduced to Japan, which was basically the same as that of the Tang Dynasty. The objects of tribute mainly include Jinshi, Mingjing, Jinshi and Faming, as well as medicine and acupuncture. However, although everyone can take part in the Japanese imperial examination in theory, it is actually limited to college students whose bureaucratic children account for the vast majority. Therefore, the imperial examination in the Tang Dynasty was more civilian, while the imperial examination in Japan was aristocratic. Because aristocrats are in charge of politics and learned officials are hereditary, after the 10 century, Japanese universities are basically dominated by aristocrats. Doctors recommend university students to take the imperial examination, not based on their ability, but on their qualifications and fame, which leads to the regularization of the imperial examination. 1 1 century later, although the formal provincial examination continued, the candidates were recommended by powerful people, and the candidates were almost unconditional. At this point, the imperial examination system was completely alienated, and it was never implemented again, so that many modern Japanese and even Japanese mistakenly thought that the imperial examination system had never been implemented in Japanese history.
However, in the 8th and 9th centuries, Japan did implement the imperial examination system, which can be verified by many scholars and literati at that time. At that time, the poems written by the Japanese about the imperial examination and ranking were exactly the same as those written in the Tang Dynasty. For example, Sugawara no michizane's poem "Ten quatrains, Congratulations to Jinshi" (Japanese Poetry) 17 "Congratulations to Peace" said: "I have no appetite for sediment for a long time, and I have been inside and outside for thirteen times. If your head is not empty and you hate it, please frown. " The poem "He Jufeng" said: "At the beginning of forty-two, you should know that you are a late bloomer." The poem "Around Hetian" says: "Longmen is three feet flat today, striving for a stronger Wan Ren in the future." The poem "He Yeda" said: "The word' Deng Ke' is worth one thousand dollars. Why worry about filial piety? " In the Fusang Collection edited by Ji, there is a poem "Countermeasures after New Poetry and Tibetan History of Yizhou" by Shunmao Sugawara, which describes the happy mood of No.1 after being trapped for a long time: "The road is full of blood, and it is autumn. Can't you say something about pleasure today? " The fairy laurel landed on the moon, and the Confucian style was beyond words. "Similar to the tang dynasty Meng Jiao jinshi and poetry. However, in Sanshan Shan Zong's "After Failing the List", "Being ill without talent frequently fails the list, and worrying about loneliness tomorrow" reflects the pain of those who fail in the exam. [1] These poems concretely and vividly confirm the implementation of the Japanese imperial examination system. In addition, China's Sugawara no michizane essays in Qing Dynasty, such as Asking Scholars to Try New Things, Asking for Limits, Countermeasures of Arts and Sciences, Asking Doctors to Grant Miscellaneous Work, are also historical materials related to Japanese imperial examination system. [2]
The imperial examination in Korean history is the longest and most complete one outside China. From 958 to 1894, the imperial examination system existed in Korean history for 936 years. The imperial examination in Koryo Dynasty borrowed from the imperial examination system in Tang and Song Dynasties, and was subordinate to the imperial examination in China to some extent. 19 (137 1) After Ming Taizu sent an envoy to issue an imperial edict, the Korean imperial examination procedure was formulated in accordance with the Ming Dynasty, and the first test of the Five Classics was limited to more than 500 words, and the four books were suspected to be more than 300 words. The second test limit of "On Rites and Music" is more than 300 words; The strategy of the third trial is limited to more than 1000 words, and the requirements are straightforward, not empty talk. After Chinese style, you will be tested in books, calculations and methods. The book will read its strokes, calculate its multiplication and division, and the law will listen to its explanation.
In A.D. 1392, the Li Dynasty replaced the Korean dynasty to rule the Korean peninsula, and immediately continued to implement the imperial examination system. In the first year of Li Taizu (1392), the imperial examination law was enacted. At the beginning, the doubts about the meaning of the four books and the five classics were broken, and the theory was changed. It aims to "suppress the disadvantages of poems and sentences, and serve the poor and experienced people." However, after the implementation of several subjects, it was proved by practice that "scholars in classics" could not be selected, so in the seventh year of Emperor Taizong's reign (660), Jin Quan also thought that "the writings of Han officials are very important and can't be ignored" and proposed the establishment of "Han official subjects", which are the same as the main subjects. [3] The Li Dynasty also expanded the scale of students' Jinshi examination, and imitated the old saying in the Book of Rites, calling students' Jinshi "Sima". South Korea generally tries once every three years, with 33 people in each subject. Li Chao called the three-year exam a "year exam", which belongs to the "big exam". Usually, the number of students admitted is 33, and the number of students admitted to the later type annual examination often reaches 40 to 50. In the Li Dynasty, temporary courses were added as needed, which was called "not trying", equivalent to Cohen in China in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Every time the emperor ascended the throne, he performed auspicious deeds, lived a long life, and the imperial concubine attached to the shrine to celebrate, and held ceremonies such as conferring the crown prince, establishing the crown prince, and celebrating the entrance of the crown prince. A "retry" was held every ten years, allowing serving officials such as Tang Xiaguan to take the exam. In addition, there are subjects such as augmented test, holy test and spring pool test. For subjects other than these annual examinations, at least three students are admitted, and more than 40 students are admitted, usually more than 10 students are admitted. Imperial examinations in the Li Dynasty were even more frequent than those in China at the same time, and subjects were offered almost every year, which reached a very prosperous level and occupied a pivotal central position in society.
In the Ming Dynasty in China, the imperial examination was regarded as the fairest system in the world, so there was "the imperial examination, the king of the world; ..... The imperial examination and private, what is public ". [4] In the seventeenth year of Wanli (1589), Dr. Gao Gui said, "I have been fair for two hundred years, thanks to the imperial examination hall." [5] During the light naval rule, the Li Dynasty was very similar to China, and there was also a saying that "China's justice was only in the imperial examination". [6] Of course, similar to China's imperial examination in the Li Dynasty, there were many drawbacks, and the dispute over the retention or abolition of the imperial examination also occurred from time to time until the thirty-first year (1894) when the imperial examination system was suspended.
The imperial examination in Vietnam began at 1075 and ended at 19 19. It is the latest country to implement the imperial examination in East Asia and abolish it in the world. Like North Korea, the implementation of the imperial examination in Viet Nam is similar to that in many places in China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It is only because the imperial examination has a positive effect on selecting talents and stabilizing society that it is imitated and adopted. The imperial examination in Vietnam began in the first year of Renzong Taining in the Li Dynasty (1075), but the imperial examination in the Li Dynasty was held only four times, with little enrollment and little influence. After the establishment of the Chen Dynasty, eight years after the founding of the People's Republic of China (1232), Chen Taizong set up the imperial academy Student Department to recruit scholars from imperial academy students. In order to expand the scope and influence of the imperial examination, Chen Yu-er established the Jinshi branch in 2002 (13 14) and enrolled 50 Jinshi. At this point, Vietnam Jinshi branch was established.
After the Li Dynasty, it imitated China's imperial examinations in the Ming Dynasty. In the third year of Hongwu in Ming Taizu (1370), Zhu Yuanzhang issued an imperial edict, allowing the scholars of Annan, Koryo and Zhancheng to finish their exams in their own countries and go to the capital of China to take the exams. In the fourth year of Yongle (140 1), Annan re-entered the territory of China and established the Foreign Affairs Department. In the second year of Xuande (1427), the Ming court withdrew its officers and soldiers and returned to the north, and Annan became independent again. The following year (1428), Li Li officially proclaimed himself emperor, with a great title. In the first year of Ming Yingzong orthodoxy (1436), he was conferred the title of King Annan by the Ming Dynasty. The imperial examinations flourished in Vietnam's Li Dynasty. Compared with the Korean Imperial Examination, the Vietnamese Imperial Examination seems to be more similar to the China Imperial Examination, and Ruan Dynasty even introduced the standardized eight-part essay examination style in the imperial examination field in the tenth year of Ming Dynasty (1832). [7]
Generally speaking, the Vietnamese imperial examination is inferior to the China imperial examination in terms of formality, authority, meeting the requirements of administrative posts and promoting the mobility of social classes. However, compared with Japanese and Korean imperial examinations, Viet Nam imitated China's imperial examinations in some aspects. For example, in the history of Korean imperial examination, there was no large-scale imperial examination room. Gong Yuan and Viet Nam not only used stereotyped writing in the examination room, but also established a well-managed special examination room, which was very similar to Gong Yuan in China during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. China Imperial Examination was also the main basis for the establishment of Vietnamese Imperial Examination. The imperial examination system was imitated by three East Asian countries, which effectively promoted the spread of Chinese culture and the formation of the imperial examination cultural circle in East Asia, and played a positive role in improving the cultural level of various countries.
The Western Advance of Imperial Examination: China's "Fifth Great Invention"
In addition to being imitated by East Asian countries, the imperial examination system has a great influence on the world, mainly reflected in the reference to the western civil service examination system. Sun Yat-sen once said in the Five Powers Constitution: "At present, the examination system in Europe and America is almost based on the examination system in Britain. Tracing back to the source, the British examination system originally came from China. Therefore, the examination system in China is the oldest and best system in the world. " Since modern times, China has been learning western languages, western arts and western politics, and many modern systems are the products of learning from the west. In the reverse cultural exchange, the imperial examination system is the most prominent example of China's ancient institutional civilization being used for reference by the West.
In the past, Siyu Deng and others cited a lot of data to show that the civil service examination system in Britain, France, the United States and other countries was influenced by China's imperial examination. [8] But because there is no data directly indicating that "this is the imperial examination from China", some people think that this statement cannot be established. The author thinks that due to the differences between eastern and western cultures and national conditions, it is impossible for European and American countries in 18 and 19 centuries to copy China's imperial examination system like North Korea and Viet Nam in 10 and1century. There are scholars and champions in Korean imperial examinations, and Vietnamese imperial examinations have even studied imperial examinations and stereotyped writing. This situation can only be done. Moreover, compared with the tangible implement culture, the reference of intangible institutional culture will always lead to the variation of "orange to orange", which is not as intuitive as the implement culture. The key to examine whether western countries have learned from China's imperial examination system is to see whether they have absorbed the essential spirit of selecting talents through examinations-open competition and equal selection of talents. As for the content and specific methods of the exam, it is impossible to be the same. Therefore, if it has been proved that the western examination system draws lessons from the equality principle of the imperial examination in the past, and if we can find out the clear qualitative statement after the examination of civil servants in Britain and the United States, the legend of the western imperial examination can be established.
In the past, it was controversial to think that the imperial examination system influenced European and American countries, but many people who know this issue better still affirmed this argument. 1972, British historian Toynbee and Daisaku Ikeda, the founder of Sōka Gakkai University, said: "In fact, the official system of modern Britain is modeled after the official system of the Chinese Empire. Compared with the Roman system, this system has achieved great success in China. In about two thousand years, big or small, it became the pillar of unifying China and consolidating order. But it is also limited. During the Opium War, in the eyes of the British who invaded China, the system at that time was extremely superior. The British have considered whether Britain should adopt it in the future. As a result of various discussions, the system of selecting and appointing administrative personnel through examinations has also been established in Britain and has been widely promoted today. " [9]
Before 1870, there were at least 120 related documents in western literature. There are clear historical data that the civil service examination system established in Britain and America was inspired and influenced by the imperial examination system. In the English book A Journey to China published by 1896, American missionary Ding Weiliang said that the imperial examination is "the best side of Chinese civilization", "its outstanding features are admirable, and this system has evolved slowly after thousands of years; But it needs (and will) transplant some western ideas to adapt to the changed modern living environment. Today, the progressive civil service examination system in Britain, France and the United States draws on the experience of China. " [10] Ding Weiliang knew very well that the western civil service examination system was modeled after China's imperial examination system. What deserves our special attention is that while some people, including Ding Weiliang, keep pointing out clearly that the civil service examination system in Europe and America is based on China, no one in Europe and America has ever denied this, nor has anyone claimed that the civil service examination system at that time was invented and founded by themselves, which shows that the West generally recognizes this fact. If this statement is not true, then different voices will be heard. Therefore, the author thinks that the legend of imperial examination in the west can be established after finding the valuable information that it was clearly pointed out at that time that the civil service examination system in Britain and the United States borrowed from the imperial examination system in China.
Before Europe and America18th century, the selection of civil servants was either personal favoritism or shared by political parties. These ways of appointing civil servants will inevitably lead to private appointments, structural corruption and all kinds of incompetent people flooding the government. A large number of administrative officials are replaced because of the change of political parties, which will also cause periodic political shocks and interruption of work continuity. It is the only way for the imperial examination system to implement competitive examinations, select the best candidates, open the political power to the common people, and advertise the open recruitment of talents and talents. When westerners know that the distant Eastern Empire has such a wonderful civil service system, they can't help but have a special interest and praise, and then follow suit. Compared with the system of selecting officials such as the aristocratic hierarchy or the system of conferring officials by the monarch, the imperial examination undoubtedly has its advantages. Although the imperial examination system was born in the hierarchical feudal society of China, its spirit of "open competition, equality and selection of the best" has the characteristics of surpassing the feudal era, and it is a rare fair system in the feudal society of China. The imperial examination is fairly fair in form, and "Bei Tian Shelang" may be the "Imperial Palace at dusk". This method of selecting and appointing officials who have no seeds and live in thatched cottages promotes the mobility of social classes, ensures that administrative personnel maintain a high cultural quality, and thus improves the efficiency of government work. The fairness and objectivity of selecting talents and appointing people can also eliminate the troubles of personnel relations on the appointment of officials, arouse the interest of westerners and win praise, and then establish a modern civil service examination system with reference to the imperial examination system.
Some western scholars believe that the spread of the imperial examination system to Europe and America and its influence on the world is one of China's great contributions to the process of world civilization. For example, American scholar Krieger pointed out in a paper published in Harvard Journal of Asian Studies in 1947: "The establishment of China's civil service administrative system with the imperial examination as the core is one of China's most important contributions to the world." [1 1] China culture has the greatest influence on the world in the fields of material civilization such as papermaking, gunpowder, printing, compass, etc., while in terms of spiritual civilization or institutional civilization, the imperial examination system has the greatest influence on the world. As far as its influence on the process of world civilization is concerned, in a certain sense, I think the imperial examination system can be called "the fifth great invention" of China.
In the past, some people called China's "fifth invention" by China. For example, Chinese characters were the "fifth invention" and the meridian theory of traditional Chinese medicine was the "fifth invention". However, these "fifth great inventions" are just words spoken by China people themselves, and there is always a bit of "the old lady selling melons and boasting" because these things have not been widely adopted in the world, and neither does West Renye Fang. However, westerners are the first to compare the imperial examination system with the four great inventions.
As early as 100 years ago, westerners compared the influence of the imperial examination system on world civilization with the four great inventions. For example, in July 1835, an Englishman living in China wrote an article in the English magazine China Library to discuss the imperial examination system in China, saying that the British East India Company had adopted the principle of examination competition, and predicted: "The full development of this China invention in India indicates that maybe one day, it will be like gunpowder and printing, in the national system, even in the European national system. It is still necessary to show how China can prevent the fly in the ointment of this system, just like her shortcomings in almost all other sciences and technologies. " [12] ingels's prediction at that time was correct. The civil service examination system implemented by the East India Company has accumulated experience and paved the way for the establishment of the British civil service system, and the imperial examination system has finally had a great and far-reaching impact on the civil service systems of all countries in the world through Britain.
The imperial examination system is an ancient examination system with world influence. Its importance surpasses that of China, and it has considerable world significance. Moreover, the imperial examination culture had a wide and profound influence on modern China. Therefore, "Imperial Examination" is worthy of our in-depth study.