Today, looking back at China in the 20th century, we find that during the painful transformation, China's modernization developed with the invasion of foreign powers, but it could not develop normally due to the interference and destruction of external forces. The Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 had a profound influence on the politics, economy, society and culture of China in the 20th century. On the one hand, it has aroused national awakening and national cohesion, on the other hand, it has also caused the lag of China's modernization process.
one
From the second half of19th century to the beginning of 20th century, the feudal monarchy in China declined sharply for thousands of years. It is also an urgent period for China people to explore a new mode of survival and development, and it is also a dangerous period for world powers to carve up China crazily. 1839- 1842 the first opium war started in Britain, and then 1855- 1860 the second opium war started in Britain and France, 1883- 1885 the Sino-French War. This series of wars of aggression against China aimed at completely conquering the Qing Empire all ended in victory, and gained political privileges and economic benefits by signing unequal treaties, but the Qing regime in the process of rapid decline can still "linger on".
When analyzing this phenomenon, the invaders who launched the war of aggression also included some western scholars, and always simply defined it as the struggle between advanced and backward, opening and closing. From the perspective of China's modern history, Mary B. Lan said: "The ancient order of China under the Manchu regime was so powerful and good at self-protection, and it survived for a century under repeated people's uprisings and foreign attacks. However, it is this kind of power that destroys itself. It took the initiative to accept modern industrialization, nationalism, science and democracy so slowly that it was doomed to its ultimate demise "[1] (P3). On the whole, this conclusion is correct. However, without revealing the predatory and destructive side of the colonists, it is impossible to explain why China's modernization process has been in a slump and frustrated repeatedly since 1840. China's stagnation and frustration in the process of modernization is not only the stubborn resistance of its own anti-modernization and non-modernization forces [2] (P7), but also the interference and destruction of external forces. Because modern "latecomer" and "newly developed" countries need not only external shocks and guidance, but also a peaceful development environment. The invasion of foreign powers not only stimulated the modernization of China, but also hindered and broke the normal development of China.
Throughout the modernization process of all countries or societies, its evolution model is carried out along three levels: the modernization of tools and technology, the modernization of systems and the modernization of ideas and behaviors. No matter what level of promotion, it needs the promotion of a peaceful environment and system. Without the promotion of a peaceful environment and system, the modernization process will inevitably be disorderly and slow.
Under the situation of constant invasion by foreign powers, the comprehensive social crisis in China is highlighted with the failure of the Sino-Japanese War triggered by the "partition frenzy" of foreign powers.
The crisis of national survival and development has also caused the crisis of China's modernization process. At that time, "where to get the energy and ideology to compete with the great powers became the most concerned issue for China politicians in the 20th century" [3]. Therefore, it is impossible for the central government to establish a new social system including legal, commercial and educational systems ideologically and politically to adapt to the smooth and rapid development of modernization. Therefore, China's modernization process, with industrialization as the main content, is only promoted by the personal strength of some imperial ministers and government officials, and is carried out slowly through the efforts of Westernization officials and Chinese and foreign entrepreneurs at various trading ports. This modernization process is different from the "primitive" modernization process represented by Anglo-American law. Everything evolves naturally by society, and people don't know the final result of evolution. It is also different from the modernization process of "late-developing" countries that are not interfered by external forces and have strong government behavior. They have seen both the pattern and the ending, and can learn from the experience and lessons of "originality-development". More importantly, they can be promoted by the government to adapt to the modern institutional system, including the ideological, legal and educational systems. /kloc-China at the end of 0/9 and the beginning of the 20th century.
Modernization is the only way, but there is no environment for a "developing" country and no conditions for a "developing" country like Japan. So, 19.
At the end of the 20th century, China's modernization can only develop slowly and abnormally under the stimulation and interference of external forces.
two
Although the modernization process of China is slow and abnormal, it has been developing unremittingly until the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. Jiawuzhong
The end of the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 made many advanced Japanese realize that the modernization process on the physical level was completely impossible to cope with the whole Japanese society.
Facing the crisis. The Reform Movement of 1898 was launched under this background, and its important significance was to change China's traditional values and theoretical structure, and it began to break out.
Breaking the thinking mode of "separation of things and me", it is proposed that we should learn both western science and technology and democratic system. It should be said that this
Saving the national crisis and persisting in the modernization process is a leap in China people's understanding.
1900 Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China and signed the "Xin Chou Treaty", which caused unprecedented harm and humiliation to the Chinese nation.
The damage to the environment and system is very serious. But it also made the Qing rulers wake up from the dream of "China's great country". The Qing rulers
In order to save the Chinese nation, specifically, to save their precarious feudal rule, they began to take the initiative to reform. 1901April 2 1,
The establishment of the central organization "Duzheng Office" which carried out the "New Deal" marked the official beginning of the "New Deal" in the late Qing Dynasty, and was also the government's action to modernize China.
The beginning of the push. Therefore, it is an all-round and multi-level social change in China in the 20th century, including political, economic, military, cultural and educational fields, and its extensiveness and profundity are unprecedented. For example, in education, the imperial examination system that lasted for 1300 years was abolished; Politically, the constitutional movement is ready to advance, and so on. This is a movement initiated by the Qing Dynasty with its traditional political authority, which has the nature of reform. This paper attempts to gradually complete the transformation from traditional society to modern society on the basis of retaining the existing order. In the end, the goal of the "New Deal" could not be fully realized and was interrupted by the Revolution of 1911. The reasons are as follows: First, in terms of time, the opportunity to start such a comprehensive and profound reform has been lost (the first opportunity was 1793 when the Madzar delegation came to China; The second time was when the Westernization Movement rose. The third time was during the Reform Movement of 1898); Second, in space, there is no environment to launch such a reform in the reality of internal troubles and foreign invasion; Third, from the perspective of social foundation, the trust of the people at all levels based on the broad masses of the people in the Qing regime has dropped to the extreme; Fourth, from the ruler's own conditions, it is far from the vision, quality and ability to achieve the goal. Therefore, it is inevitable to launch a comprehensive social change and be interrupted by a social revolution when the real society cannot be effectively integrated.
19 1 1 The outbreak of the Revolution of 1911 accomplished two major tasks entrusted by history: overthrowing feudal autocracy and establishing a democratic political system.
The advancement of China's modernization process is of great significance and far-reaching influence. The revolutionaries headed by Sun Yat-sen overthrew the Qing Dynasty in the Revolution of 1911.
The direct goal is to rule Korea, but also because their activities are always in a kind of "unplanned procedure, unscheduled organization and no role goal"
Work, with ideals and no sense of reality. " Therefore, there is a serious defect of "insufficient structure" [4] (P22-25). Nevertheless, the Revolution of 1911
With the completion of these two tasks, it is of great significance for China's modernization process to change from passive to active. Especially the Three People's Principles Revolution proposed by Sun Yat-sen..
The life program is not only the guiding ideology of the Revolution of 1911, but also the first relatively complete strategic blueprint for modernization development in China, which is of great significance to the later modernization.
Cheng has far-reaching influence. The Revolution of 1911 broke the strange historical cycle of dynasty change in China for thousands of years and established a brand-new social and political system.
Degree. Revolutionaries have failed to put their blueprints and brand-new systems into practice and constantly improve them, which has both their own limitations and social constraints.
question
19 19 The May 4th New Culture Movement, from the perspective of ideological revolution and cultural change, was an extension of the Revolution of 1911. The proposal of science and democracy indicates that China's modernization process has begun to seek the paradigm of modernization development at the ideological and cultural level. This in-depth development made Marxism–Leninism widely spread as the guiding ideology of social revolution, and also prepared for the establishment of the China * * * production party. Since then, the two banners of science and democracy have played a great guiding role in China's modernization process. Until today, these two banners are still profound propositions that we seriously consider and solve. The Revolution of 1911 and the May 4th Movement laid a political, ideological and cultural foundation for China's modernization in the early 20th century. Since then, although there was a period of warlord scuffle from 19 16 to 1928, the modernization process has developed rapidly. 19 1 1 At the end of the year, there were only 16 domestic banks with a total capital of about 2 1.55 million yuan. From 19 12 to 1927, 3 1 1 bank was newly established with a total capital of 200 million yuan. In the competition with foreign capital and Sino-foreign joint venture banks, domestic banks account for 4018% of 1925 [5]. It has changed the situation that China's financial industry is completely in the hands of foreign banks and private banks [6] (P56). During this period, China's cotton textile industry, flour industry, manufacturing industry, chemical industry, electric power, mining industry and transportation industry all developed to varying degrees, among which cotton textile industry and flour industry developed the fastest. In 19 12, there were only 22 cotton mills in China, and the number of yarns increased from 5 1 root to 72 in 1927, with more than 2.02 million yarns [7] (P 182- 187). During this period, the political and cultural impetus of the Revolution of 1911 and the May 4th Movement, as well as the demand for competition and freedom improvement in the international market after the vacuum of domestic social authority, promoted the rapid development of China's modernization.
From 1927 to 1937, when the full-scale anti-Japanese war broke out, the Kuomintang practiced the political model of "ruling the country by the party". Although this model failed to fundamentally integrate China society, it eventually became an obstacle to the modernization process and was abandoned. However, the subjective will to promote modernization is obvious, and the mode of strong promotion has also adapted to the national conditions of China, a developing country, to a great extent, and objectively it is different in degree.
It has promoted the development of China's modernization at different levels. During the period of 10, the Kuomintang adopted a series of economic reform measures, especially in finance and economics. Although these measures lurk the crisis of development, they also promote economic development. Comparing the development of private industries in the two periods of 1928- 193 1 and191919, the average number of newly established enterprises in the last four years is/kloc- During this period, the highway mileage increased from 31.2000 km to 1.654.38+0.600 km, and 7895 km of new railways were built. The monetary reform from 1933 to 1935 has obviously promoted the economic development, and the domestic industry and commerce has increased by about 20% from 1935 to 1937. Young commented: "After the monetary reform in 1935, the internal and external forces of modernization gained great impetus." This shows that political factors play a decisive role in all stages of modernization, especially in the start-up stage, as well as in various non-economic factors.
China's modernization process from 1927 to 1937 has made some achievements under the strong impetus of the Kuomintang. However, due to over-reliance on power and lack of innovation vitality, especially "the government would rather stand on the people than mingle with the people", while promoting modernization, it also brought about a deep crisis in political and economic development. Another modernization model, which is different from the Kuomintang's relying on strength, abandoning the vast rural areas and overriding the people, also gradually took shape during this period. China's * * * production party combined the national revolution with the democratic revolution, determined a new direction of struggle, thus integrating the goals of different classes, groups and individuals of the whole nation and bringing hope to China's modernization process. However, because the * * * production party is only implemented in the base areas or liberated areas, it cannot affect the overall process of China's modernization.
three
From the September 18th Incident to the outbreak of all-out war in 1937, China's arduous and tortuous modernization process was also affected, but not completely. 1937 After the Japanese all-out war of aggression against China broke out, the modernization process of China tended to stagnate. Investigating the degree of modernization of a country or a society certainly involves social, economic, political and cultural aspects, but industrial civilization is the core factor. The influence of Japanese full-scale invasion of China on China's industrial civilization
The blow was deep.
At that time, the extremely weak industries in China were mainly concentrated in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Shanghai and other eastern regions. After the outbreak of all-out war, only a few factories moved in hastily, and only 152 of more than 5,000 factories in Shanghai moved in. By 1940, only 448 [14] (P87-88) factories had moved to China. During the relocation process, many machines sank and were lost due to transportation difficulties and bombing by enemy planes. This is the tangible damage to China's industry caused by the Japanese war of aggression against China. At that time, Chiang Kai-shek explicitly instructed the establishment of a new industrial center west of the Pinghan and Yuehan lines, taking the western part of China as the rear area of the Anti-Japanese War and the founding of the People's Republic of China [8] (P540). Inland factories are mainly located in Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou and Xiangxi. Before the total war, the modern industries in Sichuan, Hunan, Guangxi, Shaanxi, Gansu, Yunnan and Guizhou provinces only accounted for 6 102% of the national factories, 4 1% of the capital and 0179% of the workers (P15). The industries in these seven provinces have accounted for 88 163% of the total number of factories, 93 152% of the total capital and 85161%of the total number of workers [14] (p102). On the surface, the relocation of the eastern factories has brought opportunities to the industrial development of the above seven provinces. But we put ourselves in the shoes. It is precisely the remarkable changes in these seven provinces that show that the damage of our industry is profound.
Because the change of industrial index in seven provinces did not promote the development of the whole country, but caused the stagnation of China's modernization process. The output of major industrial products in wartime never exceeded 12% of the pre-war level. The output of cotton yarn, cotton cloth and flour only accounts for 5 13%, 8 18% and 513% [16] (P647-648) before the war. The tangible damage of Japanese invasion of China to China's industry is also reflected in that it forced China's industry to lose its trading port as the basis of its development and cut off its contact with the world market. This has a far-reaching impact on China's industry in an extraordinary period. Japan's all-out war of aggression against China has affected China's modernization, and what's more, it has destroyed the social environment that has been formed and is conducive to modernization. Under the severe national crisis, it brought objective needs and indisputable legitimacy to the centralization of the Kuomintang. Under the slogans of "country first", "military first" and "centralization of power", military organizations have become a powerful political force, thus "consolidating the bureaucratic structure in state power institutions and enabling them to strengthen their control over the national economy through political coercion and super-economic intervention." The method of super-economic intervention is embodied in the use of power capital to intervene in economic activities [8] (P529-530). This wartime economic system played an important role in mobilizing human and economic resources for War of Resistance against Japanese Aggression's victory. However, this is at the expense of delaying China's modernization process.
From the September 18th Incident to the victory of 1945 in the Anti-Japanese War, the losses and damages caused by the Japanese army to China's economy in the 14 War are rare in the history of human development. According to Korea's investigation on the losses in the six years since the Anti-Japanese War (1937- 1943), "in the past six years, the number of enemy troops trapped in our city was 75 1. Before the war, the registered population in the subsidence area was 44.99 million, the administrative area was 578 1, 1, 000 square cities, and the cultivated land area was 3,888,470 square mu. More than half of the subsidence area has been used as a battlefield, and the affected area is about 70% of the above area. Enemy planes attacked 23 provinces and regions. In the above-mentioned disaster areas, China suffered a total loss of 4496757 1000 yuan, about 133594 16000 yuan. " Han believes that the above statistical results are "the lowest" because there are many intentional or unintentional omissions, resulting in some losses not included. This set of statistics profoundly shows that 14 years after the September 18th Incident is a history of blood and fire, a history of Japanese militarism plundering, destroying and killing China, and a history of blood and tears and humiliation of the Chinese nation. This period of history has a profound impact on the lag of China's modernization.
China's modernization process embodies the will and interests of the whole nation and has great vitality, which can't be stifled by any force, let alone delayed for a long time. On the contrary, it aroused the strong desire and creative potential of China people in the process of modernization, and prompted people to doubt and deny the existing modernization model. This psychological mechanism has created a crucial opportunity for the victory of the democratic revolution led by China's * * * production party and the paradigm shift of China's modernization development.