The Original Meaning of Landscape —— "Landscape" and its Research
In Europe, the word "landscape" first appeared in the Hebrew text of the Old Testament, and it was used to describe the magnificent scenery of Solomon's Imperial Capital (Jerusalem) [1]. At this time, the meaning of "scenery" is consistent with the meaning of "scenery", "scenery" and "scenery" in Chinese, and is equivalent to the meaning of "scenery" in English. They are all concepts in the sense of visual aesthetics. Since the Eastern Jin Dynasty, landscape painting (painting style) has been widely used in China. Scenery (landscape) has quickly become the research object of artists, and the rich aesthetic theory of landscape is unparalleled in the world, which is also the reason why China landscape gardens are beautiful. This meaning of landscape (as the consent of landscape) has been used by literary artists so far.
At present, most landscape scholars understand the landscape mainly in the sense of visual aesthetics, that is, landscape. Since the mid-1960s, the study of "landscape evaluation" centered on the United States (referred to as "landscape evaluation") has mainly focused on the visual aesthetic significance of landscape. Objectively speaking, Landscape evaluation refers to the evaluation of the visual quality of the landscape, which is regarded as the consent word of landscape beauty, and Daniel and others call it "scenic beauty" and "scenic beauty" [2]; The United States Bureau of Land Management equates it with "landscape quality" and defines it as "relative value of landscape based on visual perception" [3]. Subjectively speaking, landscape evaluation shows people's understanding of "landscape value". Jacques [4] thinks that the value of landscape is "the subjective satisfaction that landscape gives to individuals in aesthetic sense". Landscape evaluation is actually the research center of landscape aesthetics, and it is also the basic basis for guiding the management of landscape resources and rational planning of scenic spots. After more than 20 years of development, there are many schools of landscape evaluation research, each with its own characteristics in theory and method.
At present, there are four recognized schools [5-7]: expert paradigm, psychophysical paradigm, cognitive paradigm or psychological paradigm. And empirical or phenomenological. The expert school emphasizes the importance of the four basic elements of modeling, line, color and texture in determining the quality of scenery, and takes the principles of formal beauty such as "richness" and "strangeness" as indicators to evaluate the quality of scenery. Some of them are based on ecological principles. A few experts participate in landscape evaluation, and they have high literacy in art, ecology and resource science. At present, the land management departments, forestry departments and transportation departments in the United States and Canada mostly use the expert evaluation method to evaluate the landscape [8- 12].
Psychophysics school regards the relationship between "scenery and aesthetics" as "stimulus-response", and advocates that the overall aesthetic taste of the group should be used as the standard to measure the quality of scenery, and a scale reflecting the relationship between "scenery and beauty" should be worked out by psychophysics method, and then a quantitative relationship model-landscape quality estimation model should be established between this scale and landscape elements. Psychophysical methods are used to evaluate small-scale forest landscapes (such as stands).
Cognitive school regards landscape as human's cognitive space and living space, and advocates evaluating landscape (landscape/living environment) from human's living needs and functional needs based on the idea of evolution. A representative one is appleton, a British geographer, who put forward the theory of "prospect-refuge" in 1975 [17]. Mr. and Mrs. Kaplan, American environmental psychologists, put forward the "landscape reference model" [18, 19] and the "emotion/arousal" response theory of American geographer ulrich [20,]. Appleton's theory emphasizes the important role of human self-protection instinct in the process of landscape evaluation. He believes that people appear as "hunters" and "prey" in the natural environment. As a "hunter", he needs to find his "prey", so he needs the landscape to provide him with a "shelter". Kaplan's model not only reflects the important role of people's self-protection instinct in their landscape evaluation, but also reflects that people appear in the natural environment as a highly intelligent animal. He will not only be satisfied with the safety and comfort of the immediate living space (landscape), but also use all kinds of landscape information to predict and explore the future living space. Therefore, Kaplan believes that the quality of landscape depends on two characteristics of landscape: "texture" and "involvement". The former reflects people's demand for landscape safety, while the latter reflects people's thirst for knowledge in the future. Ulrich's theory combines the aesthetic thought of evolution with emotional theory, trying to measure people's reaction and evaluation of a particular scenic spot through physiological testing techniques (such as EEG and ECG), so as to overcome the possible errors caused by language expression in landscape evaluation results.
The empirical school regards landscape as an inseparable part of human culture, and analyzes the value of landscape and its background with people and their activities as the main body from a historical perspective, without paying attention to the objective landscape itself, such as some studies by American geographer Lowental [22, 23].
As a conclusion, we might as well compare and analyze the above schools of landscape evaluation research from a systematic perspective (table 1). Through analysis, it is considered that the school of landscape evaluation is complementary in concept and method, not antagonistic.
Table 1 Analysis and comparison of the characteristics of various schools of landscape evaluation
Comparison of different schools
Psychophysics school
Cognitive school
Expert school
empirical school
Understanding of Landscape Value
Landscape value is produced by the interaction between subjective and objective parties.
The value of landscape lies in its significance to human survival and evolution.
(Objective) The value of a scene lies in its formal beauty or significance.
The value of (subjective) landscape lies in its reflection on the history and background of people (individuals and groups).
Man's position
Take people's universal aesthetics as the measure of landscape value.
Explain the landscape from the perspective of human existence and needs.
Passive] Landscape exists as an object independent of human beings, and human beings are only appreciators of landscape.
Actively emphasize the role of people (individuals or groups) in landscape.
Grasp the objective scenery
Analyze the landscape from "landscape elements" (vegetation, mountains, etc.). )
Grasp the scenery with "dimension" (complexity, mystery, etc.). )
Analysis of landscape from "basic elements" (line, shape, color and quality)
Take the scenery as a part of a person or a group of people and grasp it as a whole.
Secondly, landscape as a concept of geoscience.
Whether in China or Europe, the initial large-scale travel and exploration promoted the development of geography and deepened people's understanding of landscape. Of course, the word "landscape" did not appear in Chinese until modern times, and it has always been used as landscape and landscape. People are not satisfied with the appreciation of natural landforms and the reappearance of their beauty (literary activities), and begin to analyze their spatial distribution and time evolution from a scientific point of view. In particular,14-16th century's large-scale global travel and exploration (including the discovery of America in 1492 and the discovery of the East India route in 1498) made Europeans' understanding of the concept of "scenery" change profoundly. At this time, German "landschaft" has been used to describe all entities in the visual space of the environment, and it is not limited to aesthetic significance. /kloc-In the middle of the 9th century, Humboldt, a great zoologist and geographer, introduced "landscape" into geography as a scientific term and defined it as "the overall characteristics of a certain earth region" [1]. With the emergence of western classical geography, geology and other earth sciences, "landform" was once regarded as the consent of landform, which was mainly used to describe the geological, geographical and geomorphological properties of the crust. Later, Russian geographers further developed this concept and gave it a broader content. Both biological and abiotic phenomena were regarded as components of the landscape, and the science of studying biological and abiotic landscapes as a whole was called "landscape geography". This holistic landscape thought laid the foundation for the development of systematic landscape thought in the future.
Thirdly, landscape is the carrier of ecosystem.
The emergence of landscape ecological thought has revolutionized the concept of landscape. As early as 1939, Troll, a famous German biogeographer, put forward the concept of "landscape ecology". Of course, the idea of landscape ecology came into being earlier. Troll regards landscape as "the totality of space and all the wholeness touched by vision" in the living environment of human beings, and regards geosphere, biosphere and circle as an organic part of this whole. Landscape ecology is to compare the "horizontal" method when geographers study the spatial relationship of natural phenomena with the "horizontal" method when ecologists study the functional relationship in ecological areas. Quot vertical "method, study the overall structure and function of landscape [1]. Another famous German scholar, Buchwald (2), further developed the systematic landscape thought. In his view, the so-called landscape can be understood as the comprehensive characteristics of a certain space on the surface, including the structural characteristics of the landscape and the landscape revenue and expenditure shown by the interaction of various landscape factors, the landscape image touched by human vision, the functional structure of the landscape and the historical development of the landscape image. In his view, landscape is a multi-level living space and an interactive system composed of geosphere and biosphere. He pointed out that the task of landscape ecology is to coordinate the contradiction between the demand of large industrial society and the potential ability to pay in nature [1].
As for the elements in the landscape system and their relationships, Zoneveld made an in-depth analysis (Figure 1 only lists the scenic spots of Zoneveld. Zheng Zheng? A: onneveld also divides the hierarchical structure of landscape system as follows:
1. Ecological area or site: it is the lowest landscape unit, and at least one geographical component (such as vegetation, soil and water) in each ecological area is relatively uniform in spatial distribution, and other components will not be greatly differentiated.
2. Land facet or micro-shore: It is composed of multiple ecological zones, and each ecological zone in each land facet has a certain spatial relationship and distribution pattern at least under the influence of some geographical factors (mainly topography).
3. Terrain (land system or mesochore): It consists of a series of terrains, and this unit is most suitable for drawing landscape survey maps.
4. Main landscape or macro landscape: refers to the sum of all landforms in a certain geographical area.
Figure 1 Zonneveld's analysis of landscape composition and its relationship (see Naveh and Lieberman for deletion, 1984).
In North America, although the concept of "landscape ecology" has not been clearly put forward for a long time, the ideas of system landscape and landscape ecology have developed very early. As early as the 1940s, Egler [25], one of the earliest plant ecologists in North America, believed that the activities of plants and people formed an interactive whole, which was a part of a higher-level ecosystem and acted on the landscape. Later, he put forward the concept of "the ecosystem of all mankind". At the same time, another North American ecologist, Dansereau [26], also proposed to study the landscape on the advanced, holistic and dynamic levels of environmental factors and their relations, and advocated using "human ecology" to study the influence of human beings on the landscape. He understood people's understanding and influence on landscape as a cyclical and controlled process, and used the concept of "constituent elements/landscape" to discuss the process from nature to people, from unconscious to conscious, from landscape perception to landscape design. This is what agronomists, foresters, urban planners, landscape ecologists and engineers have to go through. In the end, people's subjective will will become a template for transforming or creating landscapes. Vernadsty used the concept of "intelligence circle" to describe this landscape under the influence of human consciousness, and speculated that with the development of human science and technology, rational circle would replace the natural biosphere, and human beings would live in a completely artificial world. This theory was once considered as "dangerous philosophy" by Odumn [27].
Anthropologist and natural philosopher Teilherd de Chardin [1] further developed Dansereau's rational circle theory. He believes that with the subjective initiative of human beings, through constant self-feedback and adjustment, people's landscape design and transformation is trustworthy. He called this process of landscape design and transformation under people's subjective initiative "the origin of rationality" (noogenesis). Naveh and Lieberman [1] regard landscape ecology as an important tool to realize this "rational origin", pointing out that man is not only a part of the biosphere, but also a reformer and guardian of the biosphere. Vink [28] clearly pointed out that landscape, as the carrier of ecosystem, is some control systems, and the main components of these control systems will be completely or partially controlled by human intelligence through land use and management activities. Landscape ecology is "a science that takes the attributes of the earth as objects and variables, including the main variables that realize human control over it". Taking landscape ecology as a bridge, the specific sciences of animals, plants and human beings are organically combined to realize the optimization of landscape utilization.
Now the development of landscape concept and related research disciplines are listed in a brief table (Table 2) as a summary. It must be pointed out here that the understanding of landscape (landscape) in the field of landscape architecture is also undergoing tremendous changes, and the proportion of ecological thought is increasing. Zubei (1986) [29] made a very systematic exposition on this point.
Table 2 Landscape concept and its research progress
The concept of landscape, as a concept in the sense of visual aesthetics, is consistent with "landscape" as a geoscience concept, and with "topography" and "ground objects" as the functional structure of ecosystem.
Geoscience, which takes landscape as the aesthetic object and landscape poems, landscape paintings and landscape gardens as the research objects, is the research object of landscape ecology and humanistic ecology mainly from the spatial structure and historical evolution, not only from the spatial structure and its historical succession, but also from the function.
refer to
[1] naveh, Z. and Lieberman, A.S., 1984, landscape ecology. Theory and Application, springer Publishing House, 356 pages.
[2] Daniel, T.C. and Boster, R.S., 1976, aesthetics of surveying landscape, estimation method of scenic beauty, (research paper RM- 167, Forest Service, USDA), Ford.
[3] USDIBLM1984, Visual Resource Management (replacing Version 8- 4), Washington, D.C.
[4] Jacques, D.L., 1980, Land Landscape Assessment, Subjective Theory Case, Journal of Environment. Management10:107-113.
[5] Daniel, T.C. and Vining, j. 1983, Methods in Landscape Quality Assessment. Behavior and Natural Environment, Volume 6, Altman, I.Whohlowill, J.F. (ed.). New york, Plenary Session Press. 39-84。
〔6〕Zube, e. h. Sell, J.L. and Taylow, J.G., 1982, Landscape Perception Research, Application and Theory, Landscape Planning, 9: 1-33.
Or you can go directly to /dangtuan/rudangshenqing/
Look at this. There are many papers on environmental science.