A. in the middle and late Ming dynasty. Due to the emergence of the budding capitalism, the ancient feudal system in China began to decline. Feudal rulers can only maintain feudal rule by strengthening monarchy, strengthening spy rule, developing literary inquisition and implementing cultural autocracy, and feudal rulers will inevitably have fear and rejection of the descendants of any new thing.
B. For thousands of years, China's economic structure has been a combination of small-scale peasant economy and handicraft industry, with the dominant natural economy and abundant products. On the basis of backward and closed economy, the idea of conformism, arrogance and isolation has emerged.
② From the objective factors:
A. From the mid-Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, China was harassed and invaded by foreign countries. Russian invasion of Heilongjiang river basin in China. The Japanese occupied the southeast coast, the Portuguese occupied Macau, and the Dutch occupied Taiwan Province Province. In order to resist foreign invasion, feudal rulers adopted a negative "closed door policy".
B. After the Qing government established its rule throughout the country, the anti-Qing struggle continued everywhere, especially in the southeast coastal areas. Especially after Zheng successfully recovered Taiwan Province Province, he kept close contact with anti-Qing people in the southeast coast and in exile, and fought for "anti-Qing and regaining sight". This is also the objective reason for the Qing government to implement the closed-door policy.
1, the meaning of "closed door policy": "closed door policy" is a foreign policy implemented by the Ming and Qing governments to strictly restrict foreign traffic and trade, including restricting China people and foreigners' business activities, residence period and contacts in China, and implementing "no going to sea". However, Guangzhou still has foreign trade. Therefore, it should be noted that "strict restriction" here does not mean "absolute prohibition".
2. Reasons for "closed door": First of all, "closed door" is the product of backward, closed and self-sufficient feudal natural economy. The feudal rulers were complacent and sleepy in this natural manor. They are ignorant of the general trend of the world and blindly reject all foreign things. Secondly, the "closed door" is the expression of the national narrowness of the Qing rulers. Due to the sharp contradiction and struggle between the nobles and the people, the rulers of Manchu tried to isolate the Han people at home from the outside world by "closing the country" to prevent foreigners from supporting the Han people to form anti-Qing forces. At the same time, after the mid-Ming Dynasty, the Japanese pirates invaded the southeast coast of China and the western colonialists colonized the East, which were also the objective reasons for the Ming and Qing rulers to "close their doors".
First, stifle the enlightenment thought in the late Ming Dynasty and stifle the bud of capitalism. Strengthen backward and rigid feudal autocracy. [b]
Some people say that there were no conditions similar to those in Western Europe to realize capitalism in the Ming Dynasty, so we have to ask, every country has its own road to modernization, and China does not have the characteristics of the earliest capitalist country, such as Britain. Can't it explore a modern road by itself? Such as Russian serfdom, such as feudal Germany and Japan. For another example, modern China went directly to socialism without going through the stage of developed capitalism. The same China people once established a "Lanfang Harmonious Country" in Nanyang, which existed for more than 100 years. The key is to emancipate the mind and communicate with foreign countries. Only with communication can we make progress. The Ming dynasty did much better in this respect than the Manchu dynasty. Li Zhi, Huang Zongxi, Gu and Wang Fuzhi, great thinkers in Ming Dynasty, all saw the disadvantages of feudal society, especially the harm of Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties. In their works, humanitarianism and democracy shine. There was a parliament in Britain, but at that time, people in China formed associations one after another, and the atmosphere of discussing state affairs among the people was very prosperous. In particular, there is an advanced ideological and political organization "Fu She". In the Qing dynasty, the Qing law stipulated: "Anyone who meets 30 people will be beheaded." . All non-governmental organizations have been banned.
The late Ming Dynasty and the early Qing Dynasty were the enlightenment times of the ideological circle. Huang Zongxi's The Original King criticized the absolute monarchy and fired the first shot of democratic thought. In the late Ming Dynasty, the ideological circle began to reflect and criticize the whole feudal ideological system from philosophy to ethics, from governing the country to studying. China's traditional operas and novels all take citizens' preferences as the standard, which embodies the awakening of citizens' consciousness and is a rebellion against feudal ethics that suppresses human nature. There are seeds of capitalism everywhere in Jiangnan. Western Catholicism spread widely in the south, especially welcomed by advanced literati in the late Ming Dynasty. They tried to combine religions from the West with Confucianism, and China foreign religions. Lindong Party and Catholics closely combined, resulting in a large number of outstanding figures. For example, Xu Guangqi, Li Zhi and Qu Shizhen were all Catholics, and Sun Zi, Li Tianjing, Qu Shizhen and others formed the "Western School". Catholicism in Nanming also spread in the palace, and concubines generally believed in Catholicism, which was bound to affect the supreme ruler. The concept of equality in western religious propaganda is conducive to the spread of humanism and democratic ideas. It is also conducive to the introduction of science and technology, the exchange of western civilization and even the establishment of the capitalist system. The entry of Manchu into the customs ruined the last chance for the ideological circle to combine Confucianism with western Christian civilization to produce a new culture.
At the end of the Ming Dynasty, feudal autocracy was about to collapse and decline, especially Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties exposed the disadvantages of strangling human nature and formed a fierce conflict with the vibrant civic culture. People of insight have discovered the disadvantages of the feudal system in all aspects and are exploring new ways. New ideas, new concepts, advanced and excellent western culture and technology are constantly introduced, just like the eve of the Renaissance experienced by western society. Some people say that the Ming Dynasty has decayed, which is correct in general, but not necessarily in some parts. The ruling class and feudal bureaucrats are decadent, while the people are full of vitality. The fertile south of the Yangtze River is a region where emerging forces sprout, grow and grow. Just as the Kuomintang decayed during the Anti-Japanese War, it was not conducive to leading the whole people in the War of Resistance. But the * * * production party is the force of the new revolution, which can lead the people of China in the war of resistance. It's just that the new forces of Nanming are not strong enough to lead the national war of resistance independently. However, the Manchu dynasty destroyed the productive forces with iron and blood, which made the productive forces go backwards. After the destruction of material culture, the literary inquisition in Daxing became untouchable. It strengthened this decadent feudal consciousness and system as never before, and plunged China into darkness like the European Middle Ages after the invasion of western barbarians. /kloc-in the 0/9th century, Japan became a world power in just over 30 years of westernization-Meiji Restoration. What reason do we have to doubt that the enlightenment and liberation of the late Ming Dynasty as early as 200 years ago could not bring a better situation?
[b]
Second, the productive forces have regressed greatly, and military equipment and technology have relatively stagnated. [b]
The haggard life in Kang Yong, which some people strongly advocate now, is actually mostly a kind of restorative growth in the late Ming Dynasty. According to Tianfu, a General Examination of Qing Literature, the total cultivated land area in the country was 5.9 million hectares in the 16th year of Shunzhi (1659), increased to 6.83 million hectares in the 24th year of Kangxi, and increased to 7.08 million hectares in the 18th year of Qianlong. In the thirty-one years of Qianlong (1766) to 74 1 10,000, the figure is just close to the land figure in the late Ming Dynasty (Jane Bozan). There were 7.83 million fields in Chongzhen in the late Ming Dynasty. It can be seen that the recovery of dry land production in Kang Yong was slow, and it took a hundred years to reach the production scale in the late Ming Dynasty. The highest was 79 1 10,000 in the 17th year of Jiaqing, and it only exceeded 70,000-80,000 hectares in the Chongzhen period of the Ming Dynasty, and then declined to 7.37 million in the 13th year of Daoguang. The feudal economy was at a standstill (Outline of the General History of Fan Wenlan and China, page 767).
The overall production level has not improved, so why is there such a large population? The reason is that Xu Guangqi and others introduced and advocated sweet potato in the late Ming Dynasty. This crop yields a lot. The Ming dynasty also introduced crops such as three-season rice, corn and potatoes into agriculture, which increased grain output. With the popularization of these agricultural technologies, the land in China can support more people.
Matteo Ricci, a missionary in the late Ming Dynasty, said that the material production here is extremely rich and ubiquitous, the sugar is whiter than that in Europe, and the cloth is more exquisite than that in Europe ... People are luxuriantly dressed, personable, cheerful, polite and elegant in speech. (The Notes of Matteo Ricci China, Chapter 10). Magal, the British envoy who visited during the Qianlong period, said that "there is amazing poverty everywhere", "many people have no clothes to wear" and "the army is as shabby as beggars".
As we all know, industry and commerce were extremely developed in Song Dynasty, but it was further developed in Ming Dynasty. The output of iron is two and a half times that of the Northern Song Dynasty. The military industry in Ming Dynasty was very developed. During Yongle period, the iron output was as high as 9,700 tons. By the17th century, Russia, which produced the most iron in Europe, was only 2,400 tons. But in the Qing Dynasty, the government banned mining and the metallurgical industry declined. In the Ming dynasty, cotton cloth replaced linen as the mainstream product of textiles. Whether it is heavy industry such as steel, shipbuilding and construction, or light industry such as silk, cotton cloth and porcelain, it is far ahead in the world, accounting for more than two-thirds of the world's industrial output, far higher than the proportion of the world's agricultural output. Although the population of Kanggan was several times that of the Ming Dynasty, the total output of iron and cloth, two indicators of industrial products, never recovered to the level of the late Ming Dynasty. 1840 shortly after the end of the prosperous period of kanggan, the industrial output of China was only 6% of the world's. Both the total output and the proportion in the world are not as good as those in the late Ming Dynasty 200 years ago.
The foreign trade volume at the end of Ming Dynasty was amazing. Frank of the United States estimated in his book Silver Capital that during the hundred years from the middle of16th century to the middle of17th century (that is, from the middle of the Ming Dynasty to the end of the Ming Dynasty), about 7000 to 10000 tons of silver flowed into China from Eurasian trade, accounting for about 1/ of the world's total silver output at that time. Ten thousand tons of silver, equivalent to 322 million silver in China at that time. It is not Europe that occupies the center of the world economy, but China. But before the Opium War, the foreign trade of Qing Dynasty was far lower than that of Ming Dynasty.
Intellectuals in the Ming Dynasty were open-minded and had a strong maritime military force, and they always held a welcome and learning attitude towards mastering and introducing advanced technology. "The navy of the Ming Dynasty may be stronger than any Asian country in history, even stronger than any European country in the same era, so that all European countries can't compete with the navy of the Ming Dynasty." -Needham. At that time, Yuan Chonghuan's Hony Gun came from Portugal. The firearms equipment in Ming Dynasty was very advanced. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, except for 65,438+10,000 people who were riding and shooting, all others were firearms. Each battalion (5000 people) uses 3600 thunderbolt guns, 200 Dalian Pearl guns, 400 pistols and 0/60 lamps. What modern equipment this is. With the complete demise of the Ming Dynasty, after the rule of Kang Yong III. Scientists disappeared, and the advanced firearms armed technology was buried by the Qing Dynasty. By the time of the Opium War, Qing soldiers with broadswords and spears were not familiar with firearms.
The Manchu dynasty won the world by riding and shooting, and held a natural fear and hostility to firearms and modern military industry for fear of threatening its own rule. When the Qing army presented the samples of Russian trigger muskets captured in the "jaxa War" to Kangxi, Kangxi escaped, leaving only two for his own play, which made the Qing army ban the use of this new muskets. Although riding and shooting still dominated in the late Ming Dynasty, after 200 years of firearms development, riding and shooting was finally eliminated, and China people did not need foreigners to use it. The evil consequence of hindering advanced technology is to get bad results in the end. Western countries' thirst for novelty and their desire for change in Japan are in sharp contrast with China's conservatism, no reform and indifference to new things, which has laid the foundation for China to become a semi-colonial and semi-feudal country and almost perish.
[b]
Third, from the opening of ports, exchanges and introduction in the late Ming Dynasty to the closing of the country in the Qing Dynasty, foreign exchanges were terminated. [b]
During the May 4th Movement, China people finally put forward the idea of inviting "Mr. De" and "Mr. Sai". In fact, it was first introduced in the late Ming Dynasty. Tell me about "Mr. Sai". There were more great scientists in Ming Dynasty than in Qing Dynasty. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, scientists made a historical summary of China's ancient scientific and technological achievements. From the middle of16th century to the middle of17th century, the history of science and technology in China was a period of brilliant stars and various scientific achievements. Summed up all the ancient science and technology in China, and reached an unprecedented peak. At the same time, Fang Yizhi, Li Shizhen, Xu Guangqi, Xu Xiake and Song were five scientific giants, as well as Zhu Zaiyu, Li Zhizao and many other scientists. This is very rare in the history of China. It just shows the vitality of ideological and cultural productive forces in the late Ming Dynasty. Xu Guangqi, a great scientist, was taught by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic missionary. The translated Elements of Geometry, one is Aristotle's Logic and the other is Elements of Geometry, which is the basis of western science and understanding of scientific paradigm. Without these, knowledge can only be personal experience, and people can't establish the most basic concepts of science. Knowledge and experience cannot be spread. In addition to geometric elements, in mathematics, there are also Gankun's body technique, the theory of physical curiosity, Yuan Jing's theory of geography, philosophy model and logic detective Li Ming, all of which are systematic introductions to western science and philosophy. The western missionary Genig brought 7,000 books from Europe, and the Pope donated more than 500 books. There are many math, astronomy, science and so on. Many of them have been translated into Chinese. The depth and breadth of its introduction of culture and technology is no less than that of the late Qing Dynasty, while the imperial court, government and intellectuals are much more active and less disturbed than that of the late Qing Dynasty. In the twelfth year of Chongzhen, the Catholic missionary Bi Franciscans directly asked Emperor Chongzhen for four strategies to enrich the people: 1. Change the calendar; 2. Identify the vein; 3. communicate with western businessmen; 4. Buy western spears. Emperor Chongzhen has been allowed to play. It's a pity that Ming died too early and it didn't work.
Leibniz, a great German thinker, said in the preface of "Recent Situation in China": "China, an ancient civilization, is inextricably linked with Europe, and the two sides are in a contest of reciprocity." In careful and rational thinking, Europe is obviously superior, even in mathematics and war science, China is lower than Europe. However, in practical philosophy, the history of European reality is dwarfed by the ethics of life and human reality and the theory of governing the country. "
Needham said: Due to historical coincidence, the rise of modern science in Europe coincides with the activities of Jesuits in China, so modern science almost immediately came into contact with the traditional science in China. Traditional mathematics and astronomy in Ming Dynasty were revived by the arrival of western learning. By 1644, there is no obvious difference in mathematics, astronomy and physics between China and Europe, and they are completely integrated. (See Liang Qichao's Academic Introduction to Qing Dynasty and Liang Qichao's Discussion on Qing History).
The massacre in the early Qing Dynasty and the later literary inquisition and closed door completely interrupted this process. Intellectuals in China have lost their vitality and communication. Dare not do textual research. Since then, away from science, scientists have disappeared. There were missionaries in the early Kangxi period, but their role was very different from that of the Ming Dynasty. Missionaries in the Ming Dynasty introduced religion and science, and there were no fewer scientific books than religion, because people in the Ming Dynasty needed scientific knowledge. Only talking about religion can't win the respect of scholar-officials, while missionaries in Qing Dynasty seldom talk about science (only astronomical calendar). This is because under the pressure of the Manchu Dynasty and under the influence of the policy of closing the sea, the Han people were afraid to get close to the westerners, and the missionaries lost the support of the literati, so religion was oppressed by the rulers of the Manchu Dynasty and could not develop smoothly as in the late Ming Dynasty. (A Brief History of China, page 653) It was in the late Qing Dynasty that the Elements of Geometry was once again valued by intellectuals, and Li translated the Elements of Geometry again and completed the translation of the last nine chapters. However, the Elements of Geometry translated by Xu spread to Japan, which had a great influence on the development of modern Japanese science and technology. Imagine that if the intellectuals in the upper class in the late Ming Dynasty pushed us forward with their acumen and prestige, the cultural exchange between the East and the West would have been realized for 200 years. The people of China will introduce these advanced science and technology, advanced theories and even democratic systems with a peaceful and healthy mind. China will never be reduced to a semi-colonial and semi-feudal status in modern times because of its "inferior skills" and repeated defeats in the anti-aggression war.
According to Yan Chongnian, who advocated the Manchu Dynasty, the Qing Dynasty lost eight times of foreign exchange because of its conservatism and arrogance, and opened its eyes to see the world. The problem is not only that. When Magalny visited and suggested that China should be open to western business, Gan Long gave a clear answer: The Qing Dynasty only cared about the proper execution of its own things, but ignored gaudy things and did not care about exquisite goods. We don't need products made in your country. Starting from Shunzhi and Kangxi, it was also a closed-door measure to ban the sea and move the border to drive away foreign missionaries. In the forty-sixth year of Kangxi, Catholicism was forbidden to preach everywhere, priests returned to Macao, and outsiders were not allowed to stay in the mainland. The Qing dynasty stipulated that "state and county officials who neglected to observe westerners crossing the border and did not stay in their posts were demoted to stay in their posts, and the officials were fined for six months." When foreigners are found in one place, officials in the whole province will be punished. The Qing Dynasty also had a set of measures to restrict foreign businessmen, stipulating that no more than 25 foreign ships were allowed in Macau, no China people were allowed to go out to sea, and no iron pots other than cooking were allowed to go out to sea. The Manchu dynasty was afraid that foreigners' contact with China people would fuel their dissatisfaction with the oppression of Manchu ruling nationalities, so it strictly restricted the migration and residence of foreigners (A Brief History of China 78 1 page). So is there any exchange of culture, technology and goods between China and foreign countries? The world is developing rapidly, while China is at a standstill. Even at the end of the Qing Dynasty, even the small country of Zor was able to defeat the Qing Dynasty through reform and reform, but the Qing Dynasty lost the courage and opportunity to reform and strengthen itself again and again. From the beginning of the Qing Dynasty to the end of the Qing Dynasty, the Manchu aristocratic group was always stubborn, stubborn and refused again and again, which eventually led to the collapse of the Manchu dynasty.
[b]
Fourth, the Chinese nation has fallen from an advanced and civilized nation to a backward, ignorant and semi-open nation, and China has become a veritable "declining world."
When preaching Japanese books, the missionary Shabulo found that the Japanese always appealed to the authority of the Japanese when there was a heated argument, that is, they also appealed to the wisdom of the Japanese in matters involving religion and administration. They often say: "If Christianity is a true religion, then smart people in China must know and accept it." This was the soft power of China in the late Ming Dynasty, and the notoriety of "the sick man of East Asia" spread all over the world in the late Qing Dynasty.
The rule of fools and weak people, such as the literary inquisition in Qing dynasty, has serious consequences. Take the following peasant uprising as an example to illustrate its consequences.
We can see that feudal countries that have always been advanced and open rarely used religious superstitions to launch peasant uprisings, such as the Tang, Song and Ming Dynasties. Although exploitation was heavy in the late Ming Dynasty, people in the Ming Dynasty were not ignorant. Although the uprising was large in scale and lasted for a long time, they did not use religious superstitions to engage in peasant uprisings. Because there is no social foundation at all. Manchu is different, cruel national oppression, iron and blood rule. People in China are forced to braid their hair from birth. Mentally castrated the spirit of struggle. Spider webs are dense, the air is suffocating, and ignorance is unprecedented. People are generally ignorant, numb and cowardly. To resist, we can only use religious superstitions such as opium to stimulate the numb nerves of China people. Since the middle and late Qing Dynasty, all peasant uprisings and peasant movements have been characterized by religion and extreme superstition. An Baili, Tian Li, the Hui uprising, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and the Boxer Rebellion were all the same. The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the biggest peasant uprising, was launched by using the so-called "worship of God". Hong Xiuquan successfully organized a peasant uprising by using religion (some people say it is a cult). The use of religious superstition has never been successful in the history of China, and it is not suitable for establishing a stable regime. Its prosperity is also rich, and its death is also sudden. Success is it, failure is it. Hong Xiuquan is completely addicted to this, and the country's politics is not correct, which eventually harms others and harms himself, and the country is ruined. Although the Boxer Movement included anti-imperialist and patriotic movements, it was a big exposure of feudal ignorance, superstition and closed conservatism in Manchu society. Boxers destroyed railways and telephone poles. Superstition in possession of gods and invulnerability, many people went to Yuan Shikai to test the power of bullets with their bodies and never repented. Although there are hundreds of thousands of people, they use precious things such as soul-inducing spirits, thunder and fire fans, bottles of Yin and Yang, and wishful hooks to fight against Eight-Nation Alliance's long guns and cannons. It is also inevitable that this kind of attempt will use backwardness, conservatism and ignorance to confront modern civilization and reject the introduction of all western civilizations.
Now that ordinary people are like this, what about officials? During the Opium War, Yang Fang, a famous counselor, saw the heavy artillery fire of the British army, and even came up with a strange trick to collect private toilets, so that a woman's dirty belt was carried on a raft to resist the British attack. Of course, it was a terrible failure. At that time, people sneered and said, "The dung bucket also talked about clever tricks, which made a noise all over Guangdong."
This is not surprising at all. Before the Opium War, Gong Zizhen said in "On Ancient History": "Those who once dominated the world, ……, never hated the people of the world, but went to the people's sincerity to give orders quickly, to humiliate people, to be superior, to strengthen one person, to be gentle with ten thousand people, and to be strong in defecation." "After a hundred years of hard work, it will destroy the shame of the world with shocks. Once in charge, it won't be embarrassing! ",where is the angry minister? As a result of the rule of stupid and weak people, Manchu itself was fooled. " Left without talent, right without talent, right without talent, right without talent, right without talent, right without talent, right without talent, right without talent, left without talent, right without talent, left without talent, right without talent, right without talent. "How can such a foolish and vacant Manchu regime resist the invasion of imperialism?
Let's take a look at what Kanggan's heyday looks like in the eyes of foreign bystander British envoy Magalny. Manchu "is just a giant with mud feet, which can be knocked down with a touch." In his missionary diary, Macartney said: "China" has not made progress, advanced or regressed since the northern or Manchu Tatar conquest, at least in the past 50 years/kloc-0; When we advance in the field of art and science every day, they are actually becoming semi-barbarians. ""The Chinese empire is just a broken and crazy warship. If we can still sail in the past 150 years and deter our neighbors with a seemingly powerful appearance, it is because we are lucky to have several capable captains. Once you meet an incompetent person at the helm, everything will fall apart and be in jeopardy. Even if it doesn't sink immediately, it will drift like a sunken ship and eventually smash on the coast, which can never be repaired on the old hull. "
"It is undeniable that the inventor of gunpowder was scared out of his mind at the sight of an empty gun." When the hymns of China's emperors and literati were still ringing loudly, he thought that Manchu was a declining world, a declining world, and mercilessly pointed out: "In the end, it will fall back to barbarism and poverty"! Gong Zizhen thinks this is a typical "declining world".
[b]
5. Ethnic oppression, in some ways, is a retrogression from feudalism to slavery. [b]
In order to strengthen its rule, the Manchu Dynasty brutally carried out the "haircut order" and "law of retaining people", carried out cruel national oppression and stifled the dignity of China people. Manchu left a bloody slaughter record in various places, and even committed genocide. The provinces where mass killings and massacres occurred in turn include Liaoning, Shandong, Shanxi, Henan, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hunan, Guangdong, Sichuan and Fujian. Its cruelty is no less than that of Meng Yuan. In addition, the banner of the Manchu Dynasty also competed in all parts of the enclosure, forcing the people plundered in the war and the peasants who were enclosed into slaves.
British Minister Margaret and others recorded this passage: "In the early Qing Dynasty, they were very cruel. In the first few years after the founding of People's Republic of China (PRC), whole groups of people were massacred. Forced braiding caused riots, and everyone was trapped in a pool of blood. It is the race of the master that has stabilized the country, unified rule of a slave nation, comprehensive apartheid, and prohibition of intermarriage between different races. There are no Han Chinese in the whole northern part of Beijing, which is specially for Manchu people to live in. In any case, as long as the palace harem (including handmaiden) is full of people, we must prevent all races from being mixed. The eunuchs in the palace are all Han Chinese without exception. How symbolic this is! Let the Tatars multiply and let the Han people die out. This absolutely guarantees that there are no impurities. "
After the Qing dynasty entered the customs, in addition to the very heavy national oppression, it also brought the remnants of slavery. By the Qing dynasty, the crimes committed by the standard-bearer were reduced by one level. If the Han people are sentenced to three years' imprisonment, the flag-bearer can be released as long as he is whipped for 40 days. If farmers become slaves for various reasons, "the whole family, old and young, can be slaves, the landlords of the Eight Banners can be enslaved at will without paying any price, and even the wives and daughters of farmers can rape and seize them at will." Obviously, the relationship between these peasants who were enslaved as landlords of the Eight Banners and the landlords was that of slave owners (on page 256 of Jane Bozan's Historical Review). According to the records in Donghua Lu and Ten Pilgrimages Training, the Eight Banners nobles often looted and occupied civilians, robbed the land and houses of the Han people, ravaged the graves of the Han people and whipped the officials of the Han people. All kinds of atrocities are commonplace.
It can be seen that 265 years of Manchu Dynasty was the greatest destruction and obstacle to advanced productive forces and the greatest destruction to the development of advanced culture. The massacre after the Qing Dynasty entered the customs was a crime against the people of China, and the rule of the Qing Dynasty was a slavery to the people of China. Is Manchu worthy of praise?
[b]
6. In the middle and late Qing Dynasty, the most decadent, decadent and incompetent aristocrats were born. This is the famous "children of the Eight Banners". [b]
Politically, the children of the Eight Banners always hold the mentality of "protecting the Qing Dynasty but not China" and put their own interests on the opposite side of China's interests. None of the eight anti-aggression wars was resolutely fought to the end, but always ended in surrender and compromise, which was the root cause of national humiliation again and again. This is also the main reason why China closed its doors to the outside world, was backward in modern times and failed in several reforms.
Surprisingly, due to the compensation of land cession and opium trade in the Qing Dynasty, the children of the Eight Banners, as the core force of the Qing Dynasty, actually benefited from the unequal treaty of humiliating the country and losing money in the late Qing Dynasty and made a fortune. From 15 to 19, due to the inflow of opium, the average annual outflow of silver was 30 million Liang. One tael of silver was 700 taels in Jiaqing, and it was changed to 2000 taels in Daoguang. However, the children of the Eight Banners will pay a lot. With the appreciation of family money, the living standard of the Eight Banners has risen instead. After the defeat, the unequal treaty of land cession and compensation was good or bad for the Eight Banners nobles, only they knew. For ordinary people, Diding's tax is to collect money. Therefore, the consequences of this national disaster were directly passed on to China, an ordinary poor man with no silver but only copper.
Seven. From the above analysis, we will look at the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties from the embryonic state of capitalism.
There is no comparability between the Yuan Dynasty and the Song Dynasty. When commenting on the Yuan Dynasty, no one put forward any budding capitalism. What about the comparison between Qing Dynasty and Ming Dynasty? Compared with the Wanli period of the Qing Dynasty before the imperialist invasion 1840 years ago and the Ming Dynasty, the emergence of the capitalist system has always been the result of the interaction of the new capitalist economy bud brought about by the development of productive forces, the capitalist ideology and the political interest groups representing capitalism. It is the result of the joint efforts of these three that capitalism finally defeated feudalism. The economic sprout of new capitalism temporarily recognized the basic equality of Ming and Qing Dynasties. But ideology, first, the silence after the end of the literary inquisition, and the closed door. One is active thinking, and Lindong Party appeared everywhere. Later, the society was restored, and civil associations were very prosperous. It was an era of criticizing the great thinkers of Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties. With Li Zhi as the representative, advanced intellectuals began to accept western technology and civilization. Works representing citizen culture emerge in an endless stream. On the new political forces of capitalist nature, one is lifeless, without association, without assembly and without interest groups. One is that craftsmen, a citizen interest group representing capitalism, began a fierce struggle with the feudal system of the Ming Dynasty. Protests and riots broke out in Suzhou and the victims won the praise of intellectuals. Zhang Pu wrote "Five Tombs" to record and praise this point.
If the Manchu dynasty developed normally and did not encounter imperialist invasion, it is doubtful whether the social state of the Manchu dynasty could develop to the point where capitalism sprouted at the end of the Ming Dynasty. The disadvantage of the Qing dynasty also lies in the Eight Banners aristocratic group, which represents the most feudal, backward and conservative. This group is a firm obstacle to any reform. The children of the Eight Banners do not engage in production or business, and they also look down on industrialists and businessmen and the national bourgeoisie. It is the most stubborn and powerful obstacle to the development of capitalism in China. If we follow the law of the rise and fall of dynasties, there will be peasant uprisings and dynasty subversion in about 200 years. Which is more enlightened and advanced, the peasant uprising in the late Ming Dynasty, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom or the Boxer Movement? Under the cruel rule of the Qing dynasty, the people were numb and ignorant, and shallow ignorance prevailed. Even if the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom succeeds, the outdated and unsocial religious thoughts can hardly promote social development and progress and need thorough reform. Needless to say, the Boxer Rebellion is hostile to modern civilization.
It can be seen that the destructive effect of barbarian invasion and even unification on advanced productive forces and production relations cannot be recovered after many years. Isn't this a step backwards?
Some people think that history is progressive and will not go backwards. This is not accurate. "History is progressive" is based on the general trend, and history has twists and turns. There are twists and turns and setbacks. It took hundreds of years for the bourgeois revolution to finally defeat the feudal autocracy, and there was still 80 years of feudal restoration after the French Revolution. How many socialist countries are there in the world today? However, some socialist countries used to practice the capitalist system, from capitalism to socialism and then back to capitalism. Is this a twist?
Therefore, the entry of Manchu into the customs is a historical retrogression, not based on a temporary event, but on the basis of productivity and production relations, superstructure and economic foundation, and the conclusion drawn by comprehensively comparing the actual situation of Manchu and the late Ming Dynasty. In particular, the Manchu dynasty curbed the great opportunity for China to develop capitalism since the late Ming Dynasty. This is heartbreaking.
It is not a new view that "Manchu entering the customs is a historical retrogression", which was the mainstream view in the history circle from the beginning of the Revolution of 1911 to the 1980s. It is not difficult to see from the works of Guo Moruo, Fan Wenlan, Jian Bozan and others. In the 1980s, comprador forces began to rise, setting off a wave of national nihilism, conniving at national separatist forces and encouraging the national superiority and vanity of some national elites. Compradors have no pride in the motherland and the nation, and they hate nationalism. From "the theory of territorial China" to "the theory of separatist advantage", and then Yu distorted history and published "The Back of a Dynasty". When the so-called drama was broadcast on CCTV, Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong became wise leaders and they lived for another 500 years. What about another 500 years? Can they suppress%?