China has a long history of navigation, which is of far-reaching significance to the development of history and economy. In the era of underdeveloped land transportation, ship transportation plays a major role. From "logging for a boat, logging for a boat", to Zheng He's voyage to modern advanced ocean-going technology, China's navigation has developed by leaps and bounds. At the same time, China goes to the world by sea, carries out economic and cultural exchanges with other countries in the world, develops friendly relations and promotes the progress of human civilization.
The history of human beings using ships as means of transportation is almost as long as the history of human civilization. From ancient canoes to modern transport ships, it has experienced four eras: the raft era, the sailing era, the steam engine ship era and the diesel engine ship era.
In the raft age, people used rafts as tools for transportation, hunting and fishing, which originated at least in the Stone Age. 1956 The ancient wooden paddle unearthed by China in Zhejiang was identified as a Neolithic relic 4,000 years ago. Explain that the history of rafts can be traced back to prehistoric times.
Canoe is the oldest means of water transportation. Primitive humans burned huge tree trunks or used stone axes to make hollow canoes. There are traces all over the world, and people in South America and the South Pacific Islands still use canoes for production and transportation.
Raft Ancient humans knew about tree trunks, bamboo poles, reeds and so on. Bound into rafts, or made of animal skins to float on the water. Rafts are shallower than canoes, sailing smoothly, getting materials easily and making them easily. In the mountainous areas of southeastern China, it is still common to use bamboo rafts as a means of transportation.
After wooden boats entered the bronze age, human beings improved their ability to process wood, so they processed logs into boards to build ships. Small boats can be made bigger than canoes and have better performance than rafts. The planks are connected or overlapped to form a hull, and the interior is strengthened with partition walls and ribs to form several cabins. In early wooden boats, the boards were tied with fiber ropes or thongs, and then connected with copper nails or iron nails. Linen and putty are used between the boards to prevent water.
In the era of paddles, poles and paddles, boats and rafts were propelled and manipulated by manpower, and the tools used were paddles, poles and paddles. Paddles are not limited by water depth and water width, and are widely used in the Mediterranean region. In ancient Rome, paddle boats were paddled by slaves, with dozens or even hundreds of paddles per boat. The pole can directly contact the bottom of the water and the river bank, which is light and mainly used in shallow water channels. Paddle is a more advanced rowing tool than paddle, which does not occupy the water surface, has high efficiency, has the function of propulsion and steering, and is widely used in inland river wooden boats in China.
According to records, as far back as 4000 BC, there were sailboats in ancient Egypt. The history of China's navigation can also be traced back to BC. 15th century to19th century is the heyday of sailing development. /kloc-at the beginning of the 5th century, Zheng He, a China navigator, sailed to East Africa./kloc-at the end of the 5th century, C. Columbus discovered the New World, and their fleets were all made up of sailboats. In the history of sailing development, Mediterranean coastal areas, northern and western Europe and China have made great contributions. /kloc-in the middle of the 0/9th century, American sailing was the last climax in the history of sailing development. Sailing boats in different areas have their own characteristics in structure, form and sails.
An ancient sailboat in the Mediterranean Sea An ancient pottery unearthed in Egypt in 4000 BC shows the image of the oldest sailboat. The front end of the ship is bent upward, and there is a small square sail in the front of the ship. This kind of boat can only be used in sail before the wind, and can't use crosswinds. From 2000 BC to 65438 BC+0600 BC, Phoenicians, Cretes and Greeks all sailed in the Mediterranean. Crete's sailboats are tilted at both ends, and the sails are hung on one mast. This ship type has been used in the Mediterranean for thousands of years. Sailing boats in ancient Greece and Rome were equipped with paddles, which were only used when entering and leaving ports and dispatching. Ancient Greek sailboats had high freeboard and good seakeeping. A square sail is hung on the single mast, and there are huge tail propellers on both sides of the stern, which play the role of rudder. A small sail was added to the mast protruding from the bow for easy handling. Add a triangular top sail above the single mast transverse truss. The sailboats in ancient Rome were improved, and the fore and aft trusses were added, which improved the maneuverability of the ship.
Sailing boats in northern Europe and western Europe 9 ~ 1 1 century Vikings in northern Europe were excellent sailing nations in the world at that time, with routes as far away as Greenland and North America. They made sailing boats with good seaworthiness from local oak. This sailboat is about 30 meters long and 6 meters wide. Its head and tail shapes are nearly symmetrical, with keel and front and rear columns. Shell plates are stacked and connected with nails. The ship has a single mast, mast ropes and square sails, and can sail under the crosswind. This kind of ship is very thin and has better seakeeping than Mediterranean sailboats.
1492, C. Columbus led a Spanish fleet to the West Indies. The Santa Maria he was aboard was a 28-meter-long three-masted sailboat with a displacement of about 200 tons. 1497, v da gama led the Portuguese fleet to bypass the cape of good hope and found the route to India. From 15 19 to 1522, the Spanish fleet led by Magellan completed the round-the-world voyage. This series of geographical discoveries greatly stimulated the development of European navigation and shipbuilding. /kloc-After the 6th century, the displacement of European sailboats gradually increased to 500 ~ 600 tons, the sails became more and more complicated, three-masted ships became more and more common, and the sail surface was constantly increasing. A top mast and a top sail are added to the big mast, a bottom sail is installed under the main sail, and a jib is installed on the mast strut, so that the whole space on the ship is filled with sails and the speed is improved. /kloc-Around 0/800, Britain became the largest maritime power after Portugal and Spain. Britain and its colonies have 5000 sailboats at sea.
Flying shear sailboat This is a high-speed sailboat that originated in America. The early flying shear sailboat can be represented by the "Amakin" built by 1833, with a displacement of 493 tons. Flying shear sailboat is slender, with sharp front end, fast speed and small tonnage. In the 1940s, Americans used this sailboat to trade tea and opium in China. After the gold rush triggered by the discovery of gold mines in the western United States, flying shear sailboats developed rapidly. "Da * * * Heguo" was built in 1853, with a length of 93m, a width of 16.2m, a depth of 9. 1m, a displacement of 3,400t, a main mast height of 6 1m, and a sail area of 3,760m2. After 19 70, sailing boats, as the main means of maritime transportation at that time, were quickly replaced by emerging steam engines.
Chinese sailing Chinese sailing has a history of more than 2,000 years. According to Records of Historical Records of Qin Shihuang, the Qin Dynasty sent Xu Fu to take thousands of boys and girls and craftsmen to sea by boat. In the Record of Foreign Bodies in South China written by Wan Zhen, the governor of Soochow during the Three Kingdoms period, there is a record that a ship visited Cambodia and Vietnam today. There were frequent cultural exchanges between Tang Dynasty and Japan. At that time, China's sailboats were able to sail against the wind and had good seakeeping. During the reign of Tang Zhenguan, it took only six days from Wenzhou to Japan. I can sail from Zhenhai, China to Japan in three days. The Song Dynasty made remarkable progress in shipbuilding and navigation. The seagoing ships built at that time can carry 500 ~ 600 people, and have sailed to the Persian Gulf and the coastal areas of East Africa with compasses and compasses. 1974, the wreck of a Song Dynasty seagoing ship was unearthed in Quanzhou Bay, Fujian Province. The hull is thin and has good navigation performance and seakeeping. There is a 12 watertight partition in the ship, and the hull plate on the side of the ship is composed of three layers of fir boards, which is solid in structure. It is estimated that the total length of this ship is about 35 meters, and its carrying capacity exceeds 200 tons. In the early Ming Dynasty, Zheng He led a huge fleet to sail from 1405 to 1433 seven times, crossing Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean, as far as the east coast of Africa. According to records, Zheng Hebao was 44 feet long, 18 feet wide and 12 sails. It was the first excellent sailboat in the world at that time.
The structure of Chinese sailboats is different from that of European sailboats. The sailing boats in Europe are upward at both ends, while the sailing boats in China are closed horizontally with wooden boards, forming a flat-bottomed rectangular box. The rudder is located on the center line of the tail, which creates a platform in the shape of a building to prevent waves from going up. There are many watertight partitions in the ship, and the structure is solid. The sails of Chinese sailboats are "hard awnings" reinforced horizontally with bamboo poles. This kind of balanced longitudinal sail is easy to operate and can bear the wind in all directions. /kloc-in the 0/5th century, Chinese sailboats were in a leading position in terms of scale and performance. /kloc-After the 6th century, European sailboats gradually surpassed Chinese sailboats.
/kloc-after the invention of the steam engine in the 0/8th century, many people tried to use the steam engine on ships. 1807, American R. Fulton sailed successfully on the Hudson River for the first time by using a steam engine to drive paddle wheels installed on both sides of the clermont. From then on, mechanical force began to replace natural force, and the development of ships entered a new stage.
Early Steamboat1The first half of the 9th century was the transition period from sailboats to steamboats. Early steam engine ships were equipped with full sails, and the steam engine was only used as auxiliary power. 18 19 the steamboat "savannah" built by American m Rogers took 27 days to cross the Atlantic. The whole voyage was only 60 hours propelled by steam engines, and the rest of the time was still driven by wind. In the early days, steam engines were installed on the deck to drive huge open wheels installed on both sides. 1839, the first Archimedes ship with propeller was built, with a length of 38 meters and a main engine power of 80 horsepower. Early steam engines were mounted on wooden sailboats. After 1850, iron was gradually used as shipbuilding material. After 1880, steel soon replaced iron as shipbuilding material. In 1876, only 8% of new ships built in Britain were made of steel, while in 1890, only 8% were iron ships.
"great eastern" 1854 ~ 1858 The iron ship "great eastern" built by British I.K. brunell is considered as a miracle in the history of shipbuilding. Brunell was the first to apply the mechanical theory of beams to shipbuilding, and created a longitudinal skeleton structure and a grid double bottom structure in hull construction. The double bottom extends to both sides until it is higher than the load waterline, forming a double hull. The upper deck also adopts the same structure to increase the strength of the hull. The Great East is 207 meters (680 feet) long and has a displacement of 27,000 tons, which is six times larger than the large ships at that time. The interior of the ship is divided into 22 compartments by longitudinal and transverse bulkheads. Two steam engines were installed on the ship, one driving a paddle wheel with a diameter of 56 feet, and the other driving a propeller with a diameter of 24 feet. The total power of the steam engine is 8300 horsepower, and the maximum speed is 16 nautical miles per hour. The ship has six masts with a total sail area of 8747 square meters (85000 square feet). It can carry 4000 passengers and carry 6000 tons. It was not until half a century later that a bigger ship appeared. Although great eastern failed in management, it opened the way for modern steel ships in shipbuilding theory and technology.
Improvement of Steam Boat In the early days, the steam engine used by steam boats to drive the open wheels was a single-cylinder rocker type, and the steam pressure was also very low. Three-expansion steam engine appeared in the 1980s of 19, and the steam pressure increased to 10.5 kgf/cm2. At this time, the paddle wheel has been replaced by propeller, and the three-expansion steam engine with propeller has become a typical power plant. By the end of 19, the steam engine had developed to four expansion cylinders, the steam pressure increased to 13.6kg/cm2, and the power reached 10000 horsepower. The high-pressure water tube boiler gradually replaced the Scottish fire tube boiler. At the beginning of the 20th century, cargo ships generally used a three-expansion steam engine as the main engine, with a power of about 2,000 HP, a speed of about 10 knots and a load of 6,000 tons. In the past, large ocean-going passenger ships sailing in the Atlantic Ocean were driven by compound steam engines, with a single power of 20,000 HP.
The appearance of steam turbine ship and diesel engine ship 1896, Englishman C. Parsons successfully applied his invented reactive steam turbine to the ship; In the same year, Swede C. Dilava invented the impact turbine. Since the 20th century, marine steam turbines have been continuously improved, and are widely used in large high-speed ships because of their light weight, high power, uniform rotation and no reciprocating parts. Until now, some high-power ships still use steam turbines as propulsion power. 1892, the German R. Diesel invented the compression-ignition internal combustion engine, that is, the diesel engine, which was applied to ships in the early 20th century. Diesel engine is widely used because of its high thermal efficiency and low fuel consumption. By the end of 1940s, the tonnage of diesel ships had surpassed that of steam ships.
In the early days of the appearance of oil tankers and bulk carriers, general cargo ships carried all kinds of goods, including bulk coal and grain. And barrels of oil. 1886, ships with the characteristics of modern tankers began to appear, that is, the cargo oil was directly packed in a separate oil-tight cabin and loaded and unloaded by pumps and pipelines. After entering the 20th century, the demand for oil is increasing, and oil tankers gradually form a special fleet. 1944 The maximum tanker capacity is 23,000 tons. Bulk carriers appeared a little earlier than oil tankers, but in the first half of the 20th century, due to the low loading and unloading efficiency and slow development of ports, the maximum carrying capacity was only about 1 10,000 tons. After World War II, the economy of industrial countries recovered, the demand for raw materials increased sharply, and both oil tankers and bulk carriers developed to large scale.
The rise of large ocean-going passenger ships Before the 65438+70s, all transport ships were mixed with passengers and cargo. 1870, the British S. Cunard and T. Ismail founded Cunard Steamboat Company and White Star Steamboat Company, which opened passenger flights with comfortable travel conditions on the route between Britain and North America, and the luxury passenger ship "Ocean" sailed successfully. Since then, countries have successively built large luxury passenger ships, sailing on Atlantic routes and eastern routes. In 1980s, there were 1000 passengers, 1 10,000 tons of luxury passenger ships with a speed of more than 20 nautical miles per hour. In 1930s, the construction of large ocean liners reached its climax, such as the famous Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth and Normandy. Their load capacity is more than 80,000 tons, the main engine is a steam turbine, the power is 6.5438+0.6 million horsepower, and the speed exceeds 30 nautical miles per hour. After the Second World War, this momentum recovered and stopped in the 1960s due to the rise of long-range jetliners. The construction of large ocean-going passenger ships has played an important role in promoting the development of shipbuilding technology, and at the same time, some laws and regulations to ensure navigation safety have been gradually established and improved. For example, the sinking of the Titanic in 19 12 contributed to the signing of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea.
In the era of diesel vehicles, diesel vehicles developed rapidly and gradually replaced steam engines. After World War II, the rapid economic recovery and development of industrialized countries, the unprecedented prosperity of international trade, and the massive development of oil in the Middle East and other places have promoted the rapid development of transport ships. Compared with 1948 in 1982, the number of ships increased by 1.6 times, and the gross tonnage increased by 4.3 times (see world merchant fleet). Ships are usually propelled by diesel engines. During the Second World War, in order to meet the wartime transportation needs, the 26 10 Freedom Ship (a 10,000-ton ordinary cargo ship using oil-fired boilers and steam engines) built by the United States was the last batch of ocean-going reciprocating steam engines. In order to improve the economic benefit of ship transportation, the trend of ship transportation is large-scale, specialization, high-speed, automation and internal combustion engine.
The enlargement of ships is first of all the increase of tanker tonnage and the enlargement of tankers. 1930 in the world merchant fleet, the tonnage of oil tankers only accounted for110, and rose to 1/2 in 1980. At the beginning of 1983, the deadweight of various tankers reached 330 million tons. The substantial increase of tanker tonnage mainly lies in the large-scale tanker. In 1950s, 30,000-40,000-ton tankers were considered as "super tankers". In the mid-1960s, there were more than 200,000 tons of supertankers and more than 300,000 tons of supertankers. In the 1970s, more than 500,000 tons of large oil tankers appeared. After the oil crisis and the resumption of the Suez Canal, this trend has stopped, and many large oil tankers are facing the fate of dismantling. With the enlargement of oil tankers, large dry bulk carriers have emerged to transport coal, ore and grain. At the end of 1960s, the carrying capacity of large bulk carriers exceeded 654.38+10,000 tons, with the largest reaching170,000 tons. Since the late 1950s, dual-purpose ships, such as oil bulk carriers and oil bulk carriers, have been built.
Ship Specialization After the Second World War, various special-purpose ships developed rapidly. Ordinary cargo ships are widely used and adaptable, and still occupy the first place in the number of ships. A typical ordinary cargo ship is powered by a low-speed diesel engine, with a load of less than 20,000 tons and a speed of about 15 nautical miles per hour. China's self-designed cargo ships "Feng" and "Yang" are typical ordinary cargo ships. In order to improve the ability of ordinary cargo ships to transport a variety of goods, multi-purpose ships have been built in recent years, which can carry containers, heavy goods, refrigerated goods and bulk goods in addition to ordinary groceries.
Waterway container transportation rose in the mid-1950s, and the first container ship appeared in 1957. This is a major change in the form of grocery transportation. This mode of transportation has made breakthroughs in cargo packaging, loading and unloading technology, terminal management, land and water transport and so on. Using container transportation can greatly shorten the time for ships to dock at the port, save manpower, ensure the quality of freight and realize "door-to-door" transportation. Container ships have developed rapidly in the past 20 years. 1982, there were 7 18 container ships in the world, with a total tonnage of12.94 million tons, accounting for 1% and 3% of the world's merchant ships respectively. This kind of ship is very thin and fast. There are guide rails in the cargo hold and binding equipment on the deck. Generally, there is no loading and unloading equipment, but special port equipment is used for loading and unloading.
Important special ships developed after World War II include: liquefied gas carriers for transporting liquefied natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas; The ship is equipped with a springboard, so that tractors and forklifts can drive up and down by themselves (also called up and down driving); Barge carrier, with barge as the transport unit, can realize direct transportation between rivers and seas without stopping for loading and unloading.
Since ocean liners were replaced by jetliners, their nature has changed. Since the 1960s, the tourism industry has sprung up suddenly, and a number of tourist boats have appeared, setting regular routes and even sailing around the world, providing tourists with comprehensive services such as tourism, recuperation, cultural entertainment, social activities and even marine astronomy education. At the same time, on important short-haul routes, small-tonnage buses have appeared, which can carry passengers' own cars in addition to passengers.
Since 1950s, in order to speed up the ship turnover, the shipping industry once set off a wave of high-speed ships. The speed of general cargo ships is increased to 18 knots, and that of container ships is increased to more than 20 knots. The "SL-7" high-speed container ship built in the United States is dominated by two 60,000 horsepower steam turbines, with a top speed of 33 nautical miles per hour. However, since the oil crisis, the proportion of fuel cost in transportation cost has soared. Forced the running high-speed ships to slow down one after another, and the speed of new shipbuilding also showed a downward trend However, high-speed passenger ships without drainage, such as hydrofoils and hovercraft, have been applied to short-distance passenger routes and are developing day by day.
Ship automation began in the early 1960s. In order to reduce the number of crew members, improve their working conditions and improve the economic benefits of ship operation, shipping enterprises in various countries gradually realized the automation in three aspects: engine, navigation and outfitting. For example, in the mid-1960s, ships with unmanned engine rooms were built regularly, which was recognized by classification societies all over the world.
Ship internal combustion means that ships generally use diesel engines as the main engine. Compared with steam engines, diesel engines have the advantages of high thermal efficiency, low fuel consumption and small floor space. Since 19 1 1 built the first diesel marine ship, there have been more and more cargo ships and passenger ships with diesel engines as the main engine. But by the end of World War II, steam engines were still the majority of the world's merchant fleet. After the war, due to the progress of supercharging technology, the single power of low-speed and high-power diesel engines has been continuously improved, reaching a maximum of 50 thousand horsepower. Large high-speed ships that used to have to be equipped with steam turbines can also use diesel engines. On the other hand, the adaptability of diesel engine to burning inferior oil is also improving, which has an advantage in economy. For ro-ro ships, container ships and car ferries with limited engine room space, a medium-speed diesel engine with small volume and light weight can be selected to drive the propeller through the gearbox. Diesel engines with low fuel consumption and different power that can burn inferior oil now occupy almost all the market of marine engines. Therefore, the development stage of transport ships after World War II is called the era of diesel ships.