intellectual

1989 65438+February 18, sakharov's funeral procession marched from lebedev Institute of Physics to Luzhniki) | Source: Elena Bonner.

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After Rotblat, a British physicist and doctor of nuclear medicine, and Linus Pauling, an American chemist, this paper introduces another Soviet scientist, sakharov, who fought for the control and elimination of nuclear weapons, and ends this "denuclearization" series.

What is special about sakharov is that he is the main designer of the Soviet H-bomb project, known as the "father of the H-bomb" in the Soviet Union, and won the title of "socialist labor hero" three times. 1953, 12 In August, after the successful explosion of the first hydrogen bomb in the Soviet Union, facing more and more nuclear tests, sakharov made many reflections on the dangers of nuclear weapons, including the impact of nuclear radiation on human health. He constantly urged the Soviet Union to stop nuclear testing and paid a heavy price for it, including depriving him of all honor and expelling him to a remote suburb.

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Figure119891214, sakharov at the Inter-regional People's Congress | Photo: i.zarembo

equilibrium of forces

Shortly after the defense of doctoral thesis,1July, 948, sakharov was assigned to a research group led by his tutor Igor Y. Tam to develop hydrogen bombs.

Three years ago, after Hiroshima was bombed by the atomic bomb, Stalin attached great importance to the development of the Soviet atomic bomb, and breaking the American monopoly on nuclear weapons became a top priority. He appointed beria as the general manager. The infamous beria, bald and wearing glasses, was also the head of the KGB. Igori kurchatov, head of science, is a physicist. Among the many secret facilities in China, the second laboratory outside Moscow ("Laboratory 2") led by kurchatov and its branch Arzamas- 16 are the core.

Al Zamasu-16 was chosen in the spring of 1946, located 400 kilometers east of Moscow, near the town of Szarov. An isolation zone of about 250 kilometers was drawn, just on the edge of the big forest. Magnificent church, quiet farm, wooden house in the Woods ... Arzamas- 16 is actually a beautiful residence if you ignore the barbed wire, heavily guarded guards and the reform-through-labor teams waiting in line to leave early and return late.

Figure 2 Al Zamasu-16, also known as Volga Office or Los Al Zamasu.

1In August, 949, the first atomic bomb of the Soviet Union exploded successfully. A few months later, in March of 1950, sakharov moved from Moscow to this secret base.

Compared with Moscow in a state of semi-starvation, Al Zamasu-16 is like a paradise. Scientists earn a lot of money and have no worries about food and clothing. Even some people in the Politburo complained that it was like a nursing home.

Stalin believed that if these scientists were given "appropriate help", they could complete their tasks like foreign scientists.

Although intelligence personnel are everywhere, exposure and reporting are prevalent, and everyone has strict confidentiality requirements, scientists working here can resist the pressure and devote themselves to their work. Their spiritual strength is patriotism.

Sakharov later recalled that he knew that nuclear weapons were horrible and inhuman, but they were as inhuman as World War II. But in World War II, he did not become a soldier. In this new "scientific battle", he regarded himself as a soldier.

This is not just his idea. He noticed that kurchatov not only verbally said that they were soldiers, but sometimes the signature on the back of letters or memos was "kurchatov the Warrior".

"We (I'm not just talking about myself here, because in this case, moral principles are shaped in a collective psychological way) believe that our work is absolutely necessary as a means to achieve world balance." Sakharov said.

Under such psychological support, it seems unnecessary to have any moral discussion on nuclear weapons.

At least before 1953, when the Soviet Union tested the first hydrogen bomb, I personally thought that sakharov's heart was full of energy, not any struggle.

"Because we are absorbed in this only goal, perhaps because we are close to labor camps and strict management, we are encouraged to devote ourselves wholeheartedly to our work ... The rest of the world seems to be far away from two barbed wires ... This new trend will take years and violent turmoil to shake our worldview."

Unexpected good luck

Participating in the development of nuclear weapons is also a blessing for sakharov's academic circles.

After the war, the Soviet intelligentsia experienced a disaster under Stalin's rule. And his field of physics, it is precisely because of the task of developing nuclear bombs, will not collapse like other disciplines.

1947 in may, Stalin said to three writers-

"Take intellectuals among us, scientific intellectuals, professors and doctors. In terms of patriotism in the Soviet Union, they didn't get enough education. They have an unreasonable worship of foreign culture. Everyone feels that they are underage and can't get full marks. They are used to thinking that they are eternal students ... first, they are Germans, then they are French, and they worship foreigners ... simple farmers will not take off their hats and bow their heads for no reason; But these people do not have enough dignity and patriotism and do not understand the role played by Russia. "

Stalin also showed several writers an upcoming letter in which he accused Soviet scientists of sending a paper on cancer treatment to an American publishing institution for publication.

Lysenko (1898- 1976) is in a political atmosphere against foreign cultures. 1in July, 948, lysenko met with Stalin and promised that if he was allowed to defeat his scientific opponents and prevent them from interfering with his work, the agricultural output would be greatly increased.

The All-Soviet Lenin Academy of Agricultural Sciences immediately convened a special meeting to review the current situation of biology. Lysenko's report at the meeting was edited by Stalin himself, which claimed that genetics did not conform to Marxism-Leninism; Genetics is knowledge fabricated by the bourgeoisie to destroy the real materialistic theory of biological development. Despite opposition from some people, lysenko stressed at the end of the meeting that "the Party Central Committee reviewed and approved my report". Soon, a large number of Soviet geneticists were dismissed and the subject was almost abolished.

In the next two years, in order to eradicate the influence of foreign ideology, conferences on physiology, astronomy, chemistry and ethnography were held one after another. Sakharov's physics is no exception, and a great criticism against foreign physics theories, especially relativity and quantum mechanics, is brewing.

1948 12 17 established an organizing committee chaired by A.V. Topcheyev, Vice Minister of Higher Education, and planned to hold a meeting of all-union physicists on March 1949 16 to discuss Soviet physics.

However, as the press conference approached, it was suddenly cancelled. Several different opinions pointed to Stalin, who ordered the cancellation of this critical meeting for fear of affecting the development of nuclear weapons.

According to physicist Azimovich, in mid-March of 1949, three top physicists asked beria to cancel the meeting on the grounds that it would affect the physics of the Soviet Union, especially the development of nuclear weapons. Beria said that he couldn't make this decision by himself, so he had to ask Stalin for instructions. Stalin agreed to cancel the meeting, saying, "Let them feel at ease first. Then we want to shoot them at any time. "

In this way, the development of nuclear weapons partially saved the physics of the Soviet Union.

1952, some papers prepared for the critical conference of that year were published, and its editors complained that Soviet physicists fell behind experts in agricultural biology, physiology and other fields in the struggle against the remnants of capitalism in their consciousness.

Of course, these two subjects have been thoroughly cleaned.

Physicist Lev Landau said that the first proof of the success of nuclear deterrence was to save the physics of the Soviet Union.

Fig. 3 sakharov's mentor Tam (Igor Tamm, 1885- 197 1), who started the research of controlled nuclear fusion. Tan shared the Nobel Prize in Physics with two other colleagues 1958 for discovering and explaining cherenkov effect.

Although most of sakharov's time was occupied by intense nuclear weapons development, during this period, he and his mentor conducted research on controlled nuclear fusion.

This study was written in 195 1. Seven years later, the Soviet Academy of Sciences published it in Russian on the eve of the Geneva Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. Its core idea is to confine thermal plasma with annular magnetic field. Their work is the beginning of similar devices such as the tokamak.

More than three years after sakharov arrived in Al Zamasu-16, the hydrogen bomb was successfully developed. 1In August, 953, the first hydrogen bomb test in the Soviet Union was successful.

In June+10, 5438, 32-year-old sakharov was elected as an academician of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. This year, he was also awarded the Stalin Award, Lenin Award and the title of socialist labor hero. 1955165438+10/2, the Soviet hydrogen bomb was successfully tested again. The following year, sakharov was awarded the Lenin Prize and the title of socialist labor hero.

Sakharov's career reached its peak, and he became the "father of the hydrogen bomb" and national hero of the Soviet Union.

He said: "I have no doubt that the manufacture of nuclear weapons belonging to the Soviet Union is important to the balance of power between our country and the world. Due to the heavy task, I worked very hard and put forward several key ideas through originality or cooperation with others. "

However, after that, as the Soviet Union continued its large-scale nuclear weapons test, his heart changed.

The torture of conscience

After the 1955 nuclear explosion, sakharov expressed the hope that this weapon would never be used. However, the person in charge of the nuclear explosion test told him a fable. The implication is that this is not something that sakharov should worry about.

Later, sakharov sent kurchatov to Khrushchev to persuade him not to conduct large-scale nuclear tests again, but he still failed.

Fig.4 sakharov (left), the father of the Soviet hydrogen bomb, and kurchatov (right), the father of the atomic bomb.

1957, kurchatov asked sakharov to write an article to expose the so-called "clean bomb" in the United States.

Sakharov did not simply regard this task as propaganda. He made a careful estimate with the biological data at that time. He concluded that a million-ton so-called "pollution-free" hydrogen bomb will produce enough radioactive carbon, which will have lasting global consequences-in the next 8000 years, it will lead to 6600 deaths around the world.

1958, shortly after the Soviet Union announced the suspension of nuclear testing, sakharov published two articles (Radioactive Activated Carbon from Nuclear Explosion and Biological Effects without Threshold) and Radioactive Danger of Nuclear Testing. Contrary to the views of some American scientists (such as Taylor, the father of the American hydrogen bomb) and most Soviet colleagues, in sakharov's view, no matter how small the health hazard caused by nuclear fallout is, it is inevitable to face moral torture-who caused these innocent lives?

"Terrible crimes have been committed and I can't stop them! Helpless and unbearable bitterness, shame and humiliation flooded me. I threw myself on the table and began to cry. This may be the most terrible lesson of my life: you can't sit in two chairs. " He said.

196 1 year, sakharov personally wrote to Khrushchev and insisted on suspending nuclear testing. 1962, he once again asked not to carry out large-scale nuclear explosions in the atmosphere. These appeals were ignored.

It is said that at a dinner of the presidium of the Central Committee attended by famous weapons scientists, Khrushchev refused his request face to face-

"Leave politics to us ... we are experts. Just do a bomb test, and we won't interfere with you ... Remember, we must implement our policy from the perspective of strength ... sakharov, don't try to tell us what to do or how to behave. We know politics. If I listen to people like sakharov, I will become a jellyfish, not the chairman of the Council of Ministers! "

Sakharov didn't give up.

When the nuclear talks between the Soviet Union and the United States reached an impasse, he persuaded the Soviet authorities to accept the partial nuclear test ban proposed by the United States. 1On August 5th, 963, the Soviet Union, Britain and the United States signed the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in Moscow, banning all nuclear weapon tests except underground.

"I think the treaty signed in Moscow is of historical significance. It has saved hundreds of thousands or even millions of lives, and if the experiment continues, these people may die. Perhaps more importantly, the treaty is a step to reduce the risk of thermonuclear war. I am proud of my contribution to the Moscow Treaty. " Sakharov said.

After the development of nuclear weapons was basically completed, sakharov and his colleagues returned to the academic field one after another.

1964, sakharov successfully prevented one of lysenko's cronies from being elected as an academician of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. He claimed that lysenko should be responsible for a shameful period of biological science in the Soviet Union. Lysenko was regarded as "the chief of biology" by Stalin. Even if Stalin died 1 1 years ago, it still takes courage to openly oppose lysenko. After all, lysenko was close to Khrushchev on the stage.

Under the fierce opposition of sakharov and others, this film failed to be selected. It is said that Khrushchev was extremely angry and claimed to dissolve the Academy of Sciences. However, Khrushchev lost power in 10, and the matter went away.

The efforts of sakharov and other scientists saved the biology of the Soviet Union. Since 1965, he has been silent in the field of basic science. 16 years later, he published his own cosmology paper. At this time, sakharov also realized that he should take on more social responsibilities besides scientific research.

1967, he prepared a secret memorandum on strategic balance and nuclear arms race, suggesting that Soviet leaders accept the proposal of the United States to suspend anti-ballistic missile defense. He thinks such a defense system is extremely dangerous. He calls it "mutually assured destruction" (MAD), which is better or worse.

Sakharov proposed to publish his suggestion in the media. He hopes that "western scientific intellectuals ... can contain their' hawks' under favorable conditions. These groups have played an important role in preparing for the Moscow Test Ban Treaty. " But the Soviet leader rejected sakharov's proposal and told him that the manuscript was "not suitable for publication".

Sakharov decided to take action on its own.

1in may, 968, he finished his first immaterial paper, Reflections on Progress, Peace and Academic Freedom. He said that he does not consider himself an "expert on social issues", but he is a top expert on the threat of thermonuclear war caused by anti-missile issues. He hoped that the United States and the Soviet Union could have an "open and sincere discussion".

This article points out that at the technical level, thermonuclear weapons have three dangers, which are enough to threaten the survival of mankind-

First of all, thermonuclear explosions are very destructive. A "typical" 3-million-ton nuclear bomb, the explosion fire area is 150 times that of Hiroshima atomic bomb, and 100 square kilometers will be completely destroyed. If it is a nuclear explosion on the ground, the lethal exposure area covered by radioactive dust will reach tens of thousands of square kilometers. Secondly, after the end of research and development, the cost of mass production of nuclear bombs and rockets is relatively low, almost the same as that of fighter planes; Third, if you encounter a large number of nuclear bombs and rockets, it is actually unstoppable, and experts know it well.

Sakharov's manuscript was taken abroad and finally published by Dutch newspaper Het Porool and new york Times in July 1968, which caused quite a response. He became a world celebrity.

As a result, his security certificate was revoked and he was forbidden to engage in any military-related research. In May of the following year, he accepted the letter of appointment and returned to Lebedev Institute of Physics.

Will not change until death.

Fig. 5197565438+February 1 1, sakharov's wife Elena bonner and Tim Creff, director of the Norwegian Nobel Institute, held a press conference in Oslo. Bonade sakharov accepted the Nobel Peace Prize medal.

In 1980s, sakharov continued to loudly call for stopping the nuclear race and carrying out nuclear disarmament.

In 1975, he wrote-

"The uncontrolled growth and accumulation of thermonuclear arsenals leads to confrontation and threatens the extinction of civilization and the destruction of mankind. Eliminating this threat is undoubtedly more important than all other issues in international relations. This is why disarmament negotiations are so important, which brings a glimmer of hope to the dark world of suicide nuclear madness. "

On 65438+February 10 this year, sakharov was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of "his struggle for human rights, disarmament and cooperation among countries". As he was not allowed to go abroad, his wife went to Oslo to receive the medal on his behalf and delivered a speech entitled "Peace, Progress and Human Rights".

After years of human rights struggle, anti-war and anti-nuclear, the Soviet authorities finally couldn't stand him. 1980 65438+1October 22nd, sakharov was exiled to Gorky indefinitely, and was deprived of his medal on the grounds that he no longer deserved the honor brought by these national awards.

After a few months in exile, on June 8, sakharov wrote

"Nevertheless, I think the issues of war, peace and disarmament are so important that they must be given absolute priority even under the most difficult circumstances. We must use all possible means to solve these problems and lay the foundation for future progress. It is urgent to take measures to avoid nuclear war, which is the greatest danger facing the modern world. All responsible people in the world have the same goal in this regard. I hope and believe, including the leaders of the Soviet Union (the same is true). "

Figure 6 sakharov (right), the "father of the hydrogen bomb" in the Soviet Union, and Taylor (left), the "father of the hydrogen bomb" in the United States.

At the same time, he believes that the US strategic defense initiative and its deployment may disturb the nuclear balance.

After five years and several hunger strikes, sakharov ushered in the dawn.

1March, 985 10, Chernenko died and Gorbachev succeeded as general secretary. The following year, 65438+February 65438+June, Gorbachev called sakharov and invited him back to Moscow to "continue his patriotic work". A week later, sakharov and his wife returned to Moscow.

Sakharov was also allowed to visit abroad. In June1988165438+10, he was able to visit the United States for the first time. At Taylor's 80th birthday party in Washington, sakharov met with the American "father of the hydrogen bomb". He talked about many similarities between himself and Taylor, as well as some differences. He said-

"At that time, people I worked with fully believed that this work was essential and very important. At that time, our country had just emerged from a devastating war, and I personally didn't have the opportunity to participate directly, but the work I participated in was also a kind of war. In the United States, the same work is being done independently. American scientists also believe that this work is of vital importance to national interests. However, although both sides believe that this kind of work is essential to maintain balance, I think what we did at that time was a great tragedy. This is a tragedy, reflecting the tragic situation of the world-such a terrible thing must be done in order to maintain peace. We will never know whether our work has really contributed to maintaining world peace at some time, but at least when we do, we are sure that it has indeed contributed. Now that the world has entered a new era, I think a new method is needed. And I think that in any case, one should make a decision on the basis of absolute belief in its correctness. Only in this way can we find the point of mutual understanding. ..... It is very important and in fact essential to find out all the differences and similarities. Dr Taylor and I agree on some issues. For example, we are all concerned about how to ensure the safety of thermonuclear energy. On the other hand, in other fields, we have differences in principle. One of them is the space race, that is, anti-ballistic missile defense. I think it is a serious mistake to create such a system. I think this will undermine the stability of the world situation. This system requires huge costs, whether it is building, deploying or building a system that can counter it in turn (an offensive system that can counter this system). "

Years of struggle have consumed sakharov's life. He looks much older than many people. 1989 12 14 He died of a heart attack at the age of 68.

last or end syllable

British Rotblat, American Pauling and Soviet sakharov are active in different parts of the world, but they all share the same idea, that is, to oppose and eliminate nuclear weapons for the peace and well-being of mankind. They worked almost independently during their lifetime, with little overlap.

Sakharov attended the 155 and 164 Pugwash meetings, and so did Rotblat. Presumably, they had a brief contact. Rotblat also helped sakharov when he was persecuted.

Pauling and Rotblat were both signatories of the Russell-Einstein Declaration published in July 1955. Pauling attended the 2nd, 3rd, 1 1 and15th Pugwash Conference, and Rotblat was also there.

Sakharov wrote to Pauling on 1978, asking him to help appeal for the release of three scientists detained by the Soviet authorities-physicist orlov, mathematician Bolonkin and biologist Kovalev; 198 1 year, sakharov wrote to Pauling again, asking him to help release three Soviet scientists and Kovalev's daughter-in-law. This year, in addition to the open letter of help, sakharov wrote to Pauling alone again, begging him to help urge the Soviet authorities to release his daughter-in-law.

Figure 71981June, sakharov wrote to Pauling again, asking him to help urge the Soviet authorities to release three Soviet scientists.

1980 After sakharov was exiled to Gorky, 198 1 April, Pauling and Herzberg, the Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, jointly wrote to Soviet Prime Minister leonid ilyich brezhnev and Canadian Ambassador to the Soviet Union, demanding "ending the imprisonment of sakharov". In August of that year, Pauling wrote to Brezhnev again, demanding the release of sakharov, but nothing happened. 1983, Pauling sent a telegram to the Soviet Academy of Sciences and Soviet Prime Minister andropov, inviting sakharov to do research at the Institute of Science and Medicine hosted by Pauling. After learning this proposal, sakharov publicly announced his willingness to emigrate, but the Soviet Union refused to grant him an exit visa.

Pauling's efforts didn't work, and he didn't meet sakharov in the end. June, 1983, 65438+ October, he said-

"Of course, I was harassed, not so explicit ... I was not allowed to attend various scientific meetings. Of course, the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee also threatened that I would go to jail for a year for contempt of the Senate ... in short, it's not that bad. I am not as miserable as a Soviet scientist ... Last month, I came to the Soviet Union to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the founding of the Soviet Union at the invitation of the Supreme Soviet. I'm sure I was invited, because ten years after I won the Nobel Peace Prize, they awarded me the International Lenin Peace Prize. When I got there, I gave a list of people I wanted to see, including sakharov. I want to talk to him. But I didn't see sakharov. "

Rotblat, Pauling and sakharov, in order to finally eliminate nuclear weapons, they made unremitting efforts all their lives, even though they died nine times, they had no regrets.

They are outstanding representatives of intellectuals' conscience, their spirit is worth remembering, and their unfinished legacy has yet to be realized by future generations.

Senior Editor of Intellectuals

Keep forging ahead.

Dilihui

References:

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1./ 197 1/04/ 14/archives/ior-tamm-Soviet-physician-is-deadi . html

10./2019/12/1/pauling-sakharov/

1 1. joseph rotblat: longing for peace. Edited by reiner braun, etc. Published by Willy -VCH Publishing House in 2007. KGaA Company of Weinheim

12.http://globetrotter . Berkeley . edu/conversations/Pauling/Pauling 8 . html

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