On the basis of discussing the essence of language transfer theory, this paper analyzes the factors that affect the transfer, compares Chinese and English languages, and analyzes the negative transfer effect of Putonghua on English learning from phonemes, phonemes, tone/intonation language, stress and rhythm, so as to help students overcome the negative transfer effect of Putonghua and promote English pronunciation learning.

Keywords: Mandarin; English pronunciation; Language transfer; comparative study

Transfer of Putonghua to English Pronunciation

Lin yuhang

Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, Zhangzhou Normal University 0 102 1225

Abstract: This paper aims to explain the theory of language transfer, analyze the factors that affect language transfer, and make a comparative analysis of some phonetic features of Chinese and English languages, such as phonemes, phonemes, tones/intonations, stress and rhythm, so as to help English learners in China overcome negative phonetic transfer and promote English phonetic learning.

Keywords: Mandarin; English pronunciation; Language transfer; contrastive analysis

Passing the phonetic barrier is the key and difficult point in English learning. However, the discussion on pronunciation teaching in foreign languages is obviously less than that in other fields, and it is inevitable that there is a suspicion of "avoiding the important and neglecting the important". It is a good strategy to make a comparative study and teaching of English and Chinese phonetics. For example, British English Phonetics and Phonology edited by Professor Zhang is a textbook compiled according to this guiding ideology. The theoretical basis of comparative study is language transfer, while comparative study and teaching are scientific methods and means to face up to the role of language transfer. However, in the process of comparing the two kinds of phonetics, some specious sayings have appeared, such as "Mandarin is good, English pronunciation is good", which is the most representative. This statement exaggerates the positive transfer between languages and ignores the negative transfer. It should be said that the answer to this question is uncertain. There are all kinds of languages in the world. Although all languages have their similarities, each language has its own unique phonetic system and its own unique pronunciation rules. To fully and correctly understand the transfer of Putonghua to English phonetics, it is necessary to make a scientific comparative study of English and Chinese phonetics and phonemes on the basis of understanding the essence and factors of language transfer.

First, the concept of language transfer and its essence

Ausubel's cognitive structure transfer theory represents a mainstream tendency to explain transfer from a cognitive perspective, and then there are transfer theories such as symbolic schema theory, production theory, structure matching theory and situation theory. According to Ausubel's cognitive structure transfer theory, "transfer is a cognitive activity, which embodies the individual's active psychological processing process" [1]. However, there are also differences. Some researchers focus on the generalization of various theories at a higher level, and summarize the transfer as "the influence of a learning experience on other studies, which is the integration process of old and new experiences" [2]. This integration process can be realized through assimilation, adaptation and reorganization, and its essence is the process of mutual influence and interaction between the original cognitive structure and new learning, thus forming a new cognitive structure.

As a psychological term, transfer refers to the influence of acquired instructions, skills and methods on learning new knowledge and skills. Migration is a universal feature of human cognition. In foreign language learning, transfer "refers to the psychological process in which the knowledge people have mastered plays a role in the new learning environment" [3], mainly the influence of mother tongue and mother tongue learning experience on learning a new language. Language transfer can be divided into positive transfer and negative transfer. If a foreign language structure has a corresponding structure in the mother tongue, or the mother tongue can promote foreign language learning, there will be positive transfer in learning. However, if a structure has no corresponding structure in the mother tongue, or the corresponding structure in the two languages is different, that is to say, the mother tongue interferes or inhibits foreign language learning, it will produce negative transfer, thus affecting foreign language learning, which is the phenomenon of negative transfer in learning.

The systematic study of language transfer can be traced back to linguists C.Fries and R.Lado in the 1940s and 1950s. Starting from B.F. Skinner's theory of behavioral psychology, they believe that "learning is the reinforcement of stimulation and response, the formation of habits, and the connection between old and new knowledge. Therefore, in foreign language learning, mother tongue, a habit of previous language learning, will be transferred to new foreign language learning "[4]. Based on this view, they believe that "the main difficulty in foreign language learning is caused by the differences between the two languages, and the main task of learning is to find out and overcome this difference" [4], and accordingly put forward the hypothesis of comparative analysis. That is, "make a comparative analysis of learners' mother tongue/mother tongue and target language in all aspects, find out the differences between them, explain or predict the difficulties and mistakes that have occurred or will occur in foreign language learning, and use them as guidance for textbook compilation and teaching activities." " [4]

In the late 1960s, Chomsky put forward language acquisition device Hypothesis and Universal Grammar Theory. He thinks: "There is universality in human language structure, which reflects the process of human experience and the universality of human ability to acquire new knowledge" [5]. In other words, human beings are born with the ability to learn languages, which is rooted in the internal mechanism of human beings, namely language acquisition device. J.Greenberg studied and proved the universality of language through cross-language investigation, especially the analysis of word order. In a word, both the contrastive analysis hypothesis that emphasizes the function of mother tongue transfer and the universal grammar theory that emphasizes the universality of human language and ignores the phenomenon of mother tongue transfer show from different aspects that it is the certain * * * nature of various languages that makes mother tongue have a positive impact on foreign language learning, while the particularity of each language makes mother tongue transfer have a certain negative impact on foreign language learning, that is, negative transfer.

Second, the factors of language transfer

Language transfer is by no means a simple transfer between mother tongue and foreign language or second language, nor can the degree of transfer be determined by the similarity or sameness of the two languages. On the contrary, it involves various types of migration and different subjective and objective factors.

Any form of immigration is restricted by many subjective and objective factors. There are many factors that affect the transfer of English pronunciation learning, including the similarity between learning materials, the understanding of materials, the generalization level of knowledge and experience, the role of stereotypes, the clarity and stability of cognitive structure and the application of knowledge. Ausubel believes that the three variables of cognitive structure affect the occurrence of new learning or transfer. Cognitive structure is the knowledge structure in students' minds. In a broad sense, it is the whole content and organization of students' existing ideas. In a narrow sense, it is the whole content and organization of students' thoughts in a particular field. Cognitive structure variables are the characteristics of the original cognitive structure in content and organization when learners assimilate new knowledge with original knowledge. The variables that affect the transfer of declarative knowledge are availability, distinguishability and stability. In addition, some scholars believe that the following problems are closely related to language transfer. First of all, the attention caused by situational characteristics. Situations include initial learning situations and later transfer situations, and whether the two situations are similar or not affects the transfer level. Discovering physical and social scenes is also an important and meaningful part of the whole study. Different scenes or situations may have different learning and transfer. Therefore, a real English learning situation, such as a foreign language corner, is helpful to transfer the learned language knowledge and skills to the actual situation. Secondly, it emphasizes the initiative and accessibility of migration. Accessibility reflects the learner's subjective initiative, that is, when the transfer opportunity appears, the learner can successfully extract relevant experience or available resources. Effective learners have strong intrinsic motivation to adjust their language learning activities, such as actively identifying the correlation between previous language learning and current tasks, identifying appropriate language use and language transfer situations, and actively extracting available resources, which are all necessary conditions for language transfer.

Thirdly, a comparative study on the transfer of Putonghua to English pronunciation.

Contrastive study is a language analysis method based on "contrastive analysis" proposed by American scholar R. LADO1957. Redo's contrastive study is a strict one-to-one contrastive system between the first language and the second language at the phonetic, grammatical and cultural levels. The theoretical basis and focus of this comparative study is language transfer. The contrastive study of languages helps people to understand the differences and connections between languages. Mr. Li Tingxiang pointed out, "What are the similarities and differences between English and Chinese in phonetics? Every English teacher must know. Contrastive knowledge of English and Chinese can help teachers predict the difficulties and emphases of students' learning according to the similarities and differences between English and Chinese, so as to take corresponding measures in teaching methods and improve the quality of English teaching [6]. To learn English pronunciation well, we must first understand which sounds are not available in Chinese, which sounds are easily interfered by Chinese pronunciation, and how English and Chinese pronunciation interfere with each other. Although the transfer of Putonghua learners in English pronunciation learning is not entirely the transfer of specific knowledge, it is the transfer of Putonghua pronunciation habits and parts, as well as the transfer of pronunciation skills. A systematic comparative study of phonetics, phonemes and syllables will undoubtedly help to identify the conditions of positive transfer, reduce the interference caused by negative transfer, and contribute to English pronunciation learning.

The smallest phonetic unit is phoneme, but the smallest phonetic unit that can distinguish meaning in verbal communication is phoneme. Phonemes are divided into segmental phonemes and suprasegmental phonemes. The former includes vowels, consonants, combinations of vowels and consonants, consonants and sounds in words, that is, phoneme combinations or syllables. The latter refers to stress, interval, rhythm, tone, intonation and Legato. The following is a comparative analysis and transfer of phonemes between the two languages:

1. vowels, consonants, initials and finals

English belongs to the Germanic family of Indo-European languages, with 20 vowels and 28 consonants. Phoneme is the smallest unit to distinguish words in English. Chinese phonemes belong to Sino-Tibetan language family, which, like English, is the smallest unit to distinguish word meanings. Mandarin is the representative language of Chinese, with consonant phonemes, that is, 22 initials and 3 1 vowel. The initial consonant is generally located at the beginning of a syllable, and the vowel is the part after the initial consonant, which is generally composed of vowels or vowels plus consonants /n, n/, such as vowels such as /B, o, Bi, en, uBn^/.

English vowels are divided into single vowels and diphthongs; Vowels in Putonghua can be divided into single vowels and complex vowels. There are more monosyllabic words in English than those in Mandarin, and they are divided very finely. Mandarin has only six single vowels; English has 12 single vowels, which are divided into front, middle and back vowels. Monosyllabic words such as /I, u, e, a, Q/ can't find similar sounds in Mandarin, so it's hard to say that people who speak Mandarin well can pronounce these sounds and words and sentences containing these phonemes. In Mandarin, you can find similar sounds, such as /i and u/. The former is pronounced in front of the tongue than English, while the latter is further back [7].

In addition, /ei, Bi, Bo, ou/ in Mandarin and diphthongs /eI, aI, au, EU/ in English are mainly strong vowels, but they slide in the direction of weak vowels. Mandarin, on the other hand, slides fast and can't reach the position of weak vowels, so the two sounds are one. Diphthongs in English is obvious, and they are relatively independent. It is easy for people with good Mandarin to mispronounce as /lak/ or /lek/. It is worth noting that there are differences in pronunciation and mouth shape between them. The mouth shape of vowel /ei, Bi, Bo and ou/ is smaller than that of diphthongs /eI, aI, aU and [U/], but the tongue position is slightly behind [7]. Of course, for learners who can master the increasingly strong vowels in Chinese, such as /iB, ie, uB and uo/, it is easier to pronounce diphthongs /I[, Z[ and U[/] in English. Mandarin and English have three vowels, and the pronunciation methods are different: the pronunciation methods of the three vowels in Mandarin are from weak to strong, and then from strong to weak, and the vowel in the middle is strong, forming a syllable, such as /iBo, uBi, ioU, ibo/; English three vowels consist of diphthongs plus/[/,but they do not appear in the same syllable. Their pronunciation method is from strong to weak, and then from weak to second strong.

There are also similarities and differences in consonant phonemes between Mandarin and English. English consonants are often pronounced in pairs, such as /p, b/, /t, d/, /k, g/, etc. The consonants in Putonghua are mostly divided into voiced and unvoiced voiced consonants, such as /p, B, T, D, K, G, J, Q, X, zh, ch, sh, Z, C, s/, with only /r, M, N, L, ng/5 voiced consonants. The difference between aspirated and non-aspirated Chinese; Voiced English can distinguish the meaning of words, affect the length of vowels and assimilate adjacent consonants. For example, /I/ in /lIt/ is shorter than /I/ in /lId/, and voiced English can lengthen the preceding vowels. Another example is the vowel /r:/, which has different intervals in caw, cord and cated. Its cry is the longest, the second longest and the shortest. In addition, consonants in English produce phoneme variants according to their different positions and the relationship between connected phonemes. For example, phoneme /t/ has different pronunciations in different pronunciation environments and is aspirated); At the top; In stopping, it is uninspired; In some ways, it is a nasal explosive; In little, it was a lateral explosion; In that child, it is not completely exploded; On that day, it was the loss of blasting sound. These phenomena are unique to English. No matter how good Mandarin is, if you don't have this phonetic knowledge, you can't learn English phonetics well.

It is true that some phonemes in Putonghua phonetic system are not much different from some phonemes in English. For example, nasal consonants form a natural class in two phonetic systems and can be described by the same distinctive features. /m/, /n/ and /N/ can be described as [+consonant,+nasal sound,-retroflex sound and+double lip sound] respectively. [+consonant,+nasal,-retroflex,+gum]; [+consonant,+nasal,+retroflex,+soft palate]. A learner who can pronounce Mandarin nasal consonants well can also pronounce English nasal consonants correctly through the positive transfer of language. However, learners should pay more attention to those approximate sounds that are different from the pronunciation position and method of Putonghua, as well as phonemes that are not found in Chinese at all, such as /w, t/, /f, v/, /TF, DV/, and so on. No matter how authentic Mandarin learners speak, they will not strengthen their practice, and it is not easy for them to pronounce /w, t/, and fricative sounds. It is particularly noteworthy that the following consonants are described differently in Mandarin and English:

/s, z/ is gingival fricative in English; In Chinese, the former is a fricative sound and the latter is a fricative sound.

/h/ glottic fricative sound); In English; In Chinese, it is a soft palate fricative.

/r/ is an approximation); Fricative sounds in English; In Chinese, it is a rolling tongue sound [7].

2. Phoneme combination-syllable comparison

Syllable is not only a concept in phonetics, but also an important concept in phonetics. There are different opinions about the definition of syllables. As far as its structure is concerned, "syllable is a phonetic structure composed of one or a series of phonemes" [7](P20). Syllables are usually composed of initials, finals and finals. Starting sounds are usually vowels, and starting sounds and receiving sounds are usually consonants. The syllable formation in English is much more complicated than that in Chinese. The specific form is as follows:

English syllables: v-vv-vvv-cv-cvv-cvvv-vc-VCC-ccvv-cvc-ccvc-ccvvcc-ccvvc-ccvvcc-ccvvcc-ccvccc-cvcc-cvcc-cvcc-cvcc.

Chinese syllables: v-vv-vvv-cv-cvv-cvvv-VC-CVC-cvvc.

As can be seen from the above comparison, the syllable structure of Putonghua is relatively simple, usually monosyllabic and monosyllabic; Consonants often appear at the beginning and end of English syllables, such as must tempt texts thousandths and so on. In other words, Mandarin has only one syllable and no consonant group syllables. Consonant syllables have become a phonetic difficulty for learners in China, including those who can speak standard Mandarin. Learners are used to taking vowels when reading English consonants, such as pronouncing green as /[ri: n/.

In addition, it is easy to start with the consonant at the end of the word when rising, and it is very laborious to play it as long as possible, so the sound is very irregular. This is because Chinese syllables, except /n/ and /ng/, all end in vowels, that is, open syllables, with at most one consonant before the peak; But English syllables can have up to three consonants before the peak, such as /sprIt/, and up to four after the peak. Because of the different syllable systems of the two languages, it is easy for students to transfer the syllable features of Chinese to English learning.

3. Intonation language and mood language.

Every word (or syllable) in Chinese has a tone that distinguishes its meaning, such as /mā/ Ma,/má/ma,/m/ma, /mà/ scold, /mB/? Phoneticians call Chinese tonal language; However, in English, the tone of a word will not change its meaning. For example, book/buk/ always means "book" when pronounced flat, rising or falling. But when English words are used in sentences, they should be given a certain intonation to express the speaker's attitude and tone. The core of this intonation is usually placed at the end of the sentence, so phoneticians call it English intonation language. For example, this is your seat. A falling tone at the end of the sentence indicates a positive tone, but this is your seat? The tone of doubt, in order to get each other's confirmation. The intonation of Chinese sentences often falls on unstressed words. However, due to the fixed tone of the stressed words, their actual intonation is inevitably influenced by the tone of the words themselves and the required intonation, that is, on the basis of the original tone, they are slightly modulated and changed according to the required intonation, so that they do not completely lose their original tones and meet the requirements of the required intonation. For example, "This is my ball." The word "ball" in the sentence itself is a rising tone (rising tone), and a falling tone should be used at the end of the sentence. In actual discourse, we can only adopt a compromise method to narrow the rising range of the word "ball". Another example is: "Your book or his?" The word "book" in the sentence was originally Gao Pingtiao (flat tone), but it needs to be improved in the middle of the sentence. In language practice, the word "book" can only be slightly raised after the original Gao Pingtiao, becoming Gao Pingtiao plus sound. It can be seen that Chinese intonation is limited by the tone of words, and the rules of rising and falling are more complicated than English, and the rising and falling range is smaller. Influenced by the negative transfer of Chinese tone and intonation, China students speak English with flat intonation, unclear intonation and little fluctuation, so it is difficult for them to learn degraded intonation.

In recent years, phoneticians tend to emphasize the importance of English intonation, believing that vowel consonants are English itself and intonation is the soul of English. If vowel consonants are pronounced correctly and intonation is wrong, it doesn't sound like English. On the contrary, if the vowel consonant is pronounced incorrectly but the intonation is correct, it sounds like English. Since English intonation is so important, if we want to learn English well, we must pay attention to the differences between Chinese and English in intonation, strive to overcome the influence of Chinese intonation when speaking English, study hard, practice hard and gradually master English intonation.

4. Negative transfer in other voices.

English words don't have tones that distinguish meanings. Stress is an important phonetic element, which can distinguish meanings, such as? Converse (noun, opposite transaction), con? Rhyme (verb, conversation). In Chinese phrases, tone plays a more important role than specific tone. Except phrases with function words at the end (such as desk, wood, etc.). ) and individual phrases (such as mom and dad). ), every word in most phrases is pronounced with the same severity, such as teacher, telephone, car, weather, etc. When this characteristic of mother tongue is transferred to English learning, it will often cause beginners to have stress, unclear syllables or even stress dislocation when reading multi-syllable English words, such as? Diligent reading? di？ Lee? Gentleman, Dee? Ligent or Dili? Gentleman

There are also great differences in rhythm and prosody between Chinese and English. Chinese takes syllables (words) as time units, while English takes stress as time units. In Chinese, the number of syllables (words) is the basis of rhythm. Except for some auxiliary words, the pronunciation is faster and more vague. Generally, each word takes about the same time and can be read clearly. For example, in ancient poems, the rhythm or prosody is always determined according to the number of words in each line, such as Liu Zongyuan's Jiang Xue:

There are no birds flying over those mountains, and there are no traces of people in those paths. A boat on the river, a fisherman wearing his webworm moth; Fishing alone is not afraid of snow and ice.

Even if syllables (words) have the necessary weight to express ideas, they are not as obvious and distinct as English. Therefore, sentences with more words generally take longer than sentences with fewer words, such as "He has a car." And "He has a car made in Shanghai."

But in English, stress and light tone appear alternately, and stressed syllables are the basis and subject of rhythm. Stressed syllables are always high in tone, loud in loudness, clear in pronunciation and long in time; While reading syllables lightly, the tone is lower, the loudness is lower, the reading is fast and vague, and the time is shorter. Therefore, the actual distance between stress and stress is always roughly equal. The more light syllables between accents, the faster you read and the more vague you are. Such as: "Ann? Did you find it? Book her? Lost in where? Finally. " And "e? Lisa Beth. Did you find it? The article she wrote? Studying in. Library. "

The first sentence has 8 syllables, but the last sentence has 19 syllables, but there are only 5 stressed syllables in both sentences. In order to keep the time spent between every two stressed syllables roughly equal, the time spent between stressed syllables is not exactly the same. In the latter sentence, there are two and 1 light syllables between the first and second stressed syllables, the second and third stressed syllables respectively, and four light syllables between the third and fourth stressed syllables and between the fourth and fifth stressed syllables respectively. In order to keep the time distance between the five stressed syllables roughly equal, the light syllables between the third and fifth stressed syllables should be read lightly and quickly. It is difficult for China students to master this feature of English. They often make each syllable (word) clear according to Chinese habits, but they are not used to squeezing several lightly read syllables together and reading them quickly and vaguely, which sounds unnatural.

In addition, in terms of syllable cohesion, English has the phenomenon of linking, which Chinese does not have, and it will also bring some difficulties to beginners. In English learning, many people can pronounce a word well, but can't say a fluent and coherent sentence. Can understand English words, but can't understand coherent sentences. In my opinion, one of the main reasons for this phenomenon is that they have not mastered linking in English well. Many words in English end with consonants, and when they are read together with vowels at the beginning of the next word, the phenomenon of linking appears. But in fact, this kind of linking also exists in Chinese, but we usually don't realize it. Chinese conjunctions usually appear in exclamatory sentences, such as:

Oh, my God! Ward tiben B.

How bitter! HBo ku B

However, the range of Chinese continuous reading is not as common as English continuous reading, and most numbers end in vowels, which greatly limits continuous reading, so students will find it difficult to meet English continuous reading, which also greatly limits the development of listening.

Assimilation is also the most common sound change phenomenon in English. In coherent speech or reading, it is natural for voices to interact with each other. In fact, there are similar phenomena in Chinese, such as:

Bread miBn-bBo → miBm-bBo

Inevitably nBn-miBn → nBm-miBn

Both "Mian" and "Nan" here end with /n/, but the /n/ sound after "Mian" and "Nan" is assimilated into /m/ due to the influence of the following /b/ and /m/ (disyllabic).

Tone transition refers to the pause transition between two boundaries in the phonetic structure. In both Mandarin and English, intonation has the function of distinguishing meaning. Good Putonghua learners can generally notice English intonation, but it needs a lot of practice to master it completely.

Four. Concluding remarks

Mandarin and English have similarities and differences in pronunciation characteristics and rules, the number and nature of phonemes, and the differences are greater than the similarities. In terms of strong similarity, positive migration is more obvious. The difference between them is obvious, but negative migration has the upper hand. Because Putonghua has dual functions of "positive transfer" and "negative transfer" in English pronunciation learning, teachers should work with students to overcome the interference of Putonghua in English pronunciation learning and promote the positive role of Putonghua in English pronunciation learning. In teaching, teachers should highlight the key points when helping students overcome interference, so that students can deeply understand the similarities and differences in pronunciation methods and language expression between the two languages. According to the theoretical viewpoint of comparative analysis, through the steps of description, selection, comparison and prediction, this paper makes a scientific structural analysis of Putonghua and English, and finds out the differences and differences between them. Through this conscious contrastive analysis of English and Chinese phonetic systems, students can make meaningful generalizations and cultivate their sensitivity to the differences between English and Chinese phonetic systems. As Lv Shuxiang pointed out in the article "Learning English in China", the most useful help for China students is to let them know the difference between English and Chinese, and compare every specific problem in English as much as possible, so that they can have a deeper understanding through this comparison. China students must realize the differences between Chinese and English, be alert to the interference of Chinese, and try their best to overcome and avoid the interference of Chinese in English learning, so as to learn English more effectively and comprehensively.

From what has been discussed above, it is hard to say that a good Putonghua learner will definitely have a good English pronunciation. You can't speak Mandarin either, so learners with poor English pronunciation must be bad. There are many factors that affect the transfer of English pronunciation learning, including the similarities and differences between Mandarin and English, the individual's understanding of similarities and differences, and the level of generalization of knowledge and experience. In addition, situations also participate in migration activities; Learners' subjective initiative and individual characteristics are both necessary conditions for language transfer. The transfer effect of Putonghua on English pronunciation is by no means single, and the similarity between the two languages cannot determine the degree of transfer. It involves many different subjective and objective factors and should be considered comprehensively. Studying a certain factor or a certain type of transfer in isolation is not conducive to truly revealing the essence of transfer, nor is it of substantial benefit to English pronunciation learning. Good Putonghua can only say that there is the possibility of language transfer from the attitude and method of language learning, but whether it can overcome the influence of negative language transfer and really play the role of positive language transfer in English learning requires learners to play the main role, understand some theoretical knowledge of English pronunciation and phonemes, master pronunciation skills according to the laws of English pronunciation and phonemes, and have a good English pronunciation and speak authentic English through a lot of training.

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