Huangdi Neijing (including Su Wen and Ling Shu) is an ancient medical work in China from the 5th century BC to the 3rd century BC, and it was written between 475 BC and 22 BC1year. We have a certain understanding of the position, size, length and function of human internal organs, and point out that the physiological function of human body is closely related to living conditions and mental state. There is also a practical description of the growth and development process and physiological characteristics of men and women

Erya, an ancient book in China, divides plants into herbs and woody plants, and arranges similar species together to show the same kind; Divide animals into insects, fish, birds, beasts and livestock, and arrange similar species together; Names such as "mouse", "cow" and "horse" are also used.

From 460 BC to 370 BC, Hippocrates founded Greek medicine, and put forward the theory of health and morbidity, arguing that whether black bile, yellow bile, blood and mucus in human body are balanced or not, and whether there are special changes, determines human health and personality.

From 384 BC to 322 BC, the Greek scholar Aristotle described and classified more than 500 kinds of animals, and divided them into bloody animals and bloodless animals. The former is divided into hairy viviparous quadrupeds, birds, whales, fish, snakes and oviparous quadrupeds; The latter is divided into mollusks, crustaceans, crustaceans and insects. He also observed the anatomy and embryonic development of some animals. His works, including Zoology, Animal Structure, Animal Reproduction and On the Soul, are the earliest achievements of zoology research.

From 372 BC to 287 BC, the Greek scholar Dior Flaster clarified the basic structural differences between animals and plants, described more than 500 kinds of wild and cultivated plants, and wrote Flora and On the Origin of Plants.

From 23 AD to 79 AD, the Roman naturalist Pliny Sr wrote a 37-volume Natural History (also known as Natural History), summarizing the known natural and scientific knowledge at that time.

129 ~ 200, Roman doctor Galen systematized Greek anatomical knowledge and medical knowledge, and founded human physiological anatomy.

From 533 to 544 A.D., Qi Yao Min Shu, written by Jia Sixie, an agronomist of the Northern Wei Dynasty in China, comprehensively summarized the agricultural production experience in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River in China since Qin and Han Dynasties, and contained rich biological knowledge. Such as the classification of millet varieties, some relations between crops and the environment, the inheritance and variation of some crops, the sex of some crops and some achievements of artificial selection.

From 1452 to 15 19, Leonardo da Vinci, an Italian Renaissance artist, natural scientist and engineer, studied human anatomy, muscle activity, heart beating, eye structure and imaging and the flight mechanism of birds for the needs of artistic creation. An unprecedented accurate anatomical map was drawn, and it was first proposed that all blood vessels originated from the heart.

In a.d. 1530 ~ 1536, German botanist O. Braunfels wrote and published Herbaceous Flora, which freed herself from the shackles of previous book knowledge and gave a vivid description of plants according to her own observations.

In A.D. 1543, The Body Structure written by Belgian medical scientist A. Vesaliua was published, which denied Galen's argument that blood flows through the diaphragm pores of the heart for the first time, and made other modifications to establish modern human anatomy.

A.D. 1583 Italian doctor and botanist A.Che. Sapino put forward a fruit-based plant classification system, and completed his masterpiece Plants.

A.D. 1596 The Compendium of Materia Medica by Li Shizhen, a pharmacologist in China, was printed and published in 52 volumes. It recorded abundant knowledge of animals and plants, corrected the mistakes of predecessors, and clearly defined the three-level classification procedure of department, class and species. Plants are divided into five parts: grass, grain, vegetables, fruits and trees, and animals are divided into six parts: insects, scales, vectors, birds, animals and people. Every department (except people) is divided into several categories. Species are classified under classes. The detailed description of the morphology and structure of organisms and the more accurate classification based on it have surpassed the predecessors.

1609 Italian physicist and astronomer G Galileo made a compound microscope and used it to observe the compound eyes of insects.

In A.D. 1628, the study of animal heart blood movement written by British doctor and anatomist W Harvey was published, and the theory of blood circulation was established.

In A.D. 1660, Italian anatomist M Marcello Malpighi observed the capillaries connecting arteries and veins in frog lungs, which confirmed Harvey's theory of blood circulation.

1665 British physicist R. Hooke observed cork slices under a microscope and found a honeycomb-shaped chamber called "cell".

In A.D. 1668, Italian doctor F Reddy provided the first evidence against the theory of spontaneous occurrence through the comparative experiment of fly spawning and maggots.

In a.d. 1677, Dutch microscopist A.van Levinhook made extensive observation with the self-made microscope with the highest resolution at that time, and discovered the microbial world composed of various living "small animals" and human sperm.

In A.D. 1682, the Interpretation of Plants edited by British botanist N Gru was published, which also included the research results of plant physiology.

In A.D. 1686, the first volume of Plant History written by British naturalist J Ray was published, followed by the second and third volumes, in which the definition of species was discussed.

In A.D. 1727, Chinese medical scientist Yu Maokun recorded in Notes on Golden Mirror of Acne Department that the inoculation of human pox began in Qin Long period of Ming Dynasty (1567 ~ 1572). Jin Jian (1742) introduced four methods: pox coating, pox pulp, water seedling and dried seedling. According to (1775 ~ 1840), it was recorded in the manuscript of Ghosts, 1688 (twenty-seven years of Qing Emperor Kangxi), Russia sent doctors to study the "human pox method".

1735, the first edition of Natural System written by Swedish botanist C.von Linnaeus was published, which divided plants, animals and minerals in nature into classes, orders, genera and species. Firstly, the classification of animals and plants was unified, and then the international binomial system was used.

In a.d. 177 1 year, British chemist J. priestley proved through experiments that green plants can restore the air "destroyed" by candle burning.

A.D. 1777 French chemist A.-L. lavoisier confirmed that animal breathing is a slow burning process.

In A.D. 179 1 year, Italian anatomist L. galvani proved that stimulating frog nerve with static electricity can make the muscles connected with it contract; Found the phenomenon of nerve conduction.

In A.D. 1796, the British doctor E.C. Jenner used vaccinia vaccination for the first time in Europe to prevent smallpox, and realized the active immunity of human body.

In A.D. 1797, German embryologist C.F. Wolff expounded the gradual characteristics of development according to the development of plant organs and chicken embryos, and advocated the theory of post-formation.

1802, French biologist J.-B.de Lamarck and German naturalist G. Treviranus adopted the term "biology" respectively.

A.D. 1804 Swiss chemist N.-T. de Saussure expounded the photosynthesis process of organic matter and oxygen formed by green plants with sunlight as energy and carbon dioxide and water as raw materials.

In A.D. 1805, the French zoologist, comparative anatomist and paleontologist G. Ju Ye Wei put forward the related theory between the morphological structure and function of various organs. He studied the fossil remains of extinct animals by means of comparative anatomy and put forward the catastrophe theory.

A.D.1809 J.-B. De Lamarck published Animal Philosophy. This book systematically discusses the idea of evolution and holds that the mechanism of species evolution is utilization and abandonment and acquired inheritance.

In 1827, the Russian embryologist км Bell published The Origin of Mammalian Eggs, which accurately described the mammalian eggs for the first time. Animal embryology, published in 1828 and 1837, is the earliest work of comparative embryology.

In a.d. 1828, German chemist F. Waller published "On the Artificial Manufacture of Urea", which was the first time to synthesize organic urea originally produced by organisms from inanimate substances.

1830, China medical scientist Wang Qingren wrote Right and Wrong in Medical Forest. According to the observation of the corpse, he redrawn the viscera map, corrected the old saying of China's predecessors, correctly distinguished the parts of the chest and abdomen, and pointed out that there were only the heart and lungs above the diaphragm; The rest of the internal organs are under the diaphragm. The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles are described, and the mistake of "the lung has 24 holes" is corrected. It is put forward that "the memory of brain waves is in the brain but not in the heart", and hearing, sight and smell are closely related to the brain.

In a.d. 183 1 year, British botanist R. Brown confirmed that there were nuclei in plant cells.

1838 ~ 1839 German botanist Schleiden and German zoologist T.A.H Schwann established the cell theory by publishing the Theory of Phytogenesis and Microscopic Study on the Structure and Growth Consistency of Animals and Plants respectively.

In A.D. 1840, the book "Application of Chemistry in Agriculture and Plant Physiology" by German chemist J Justus von Liebig was published, which overthrew the "humus" nutrition theory of plants and established the mineral nutrition theory.

In A.D. 1848, the German electrophysiologist E.H. Dubois-Raymond measured the current generated by the muscle and nerve activities of animals.

Wu, a Chinese botanist, recorded 65,438+0,765,438+04 species of plants with detailed maps and drawings, some of which can be used to determine families or orders. It is basically classified according to Li Shizhen's system, but the difference is that Carex is cancelled and aromatic groups are added. It is an important botanical monograph in China19th century.

From 1849 to 1859, C Bernard, a French physiologist, discovered and verified the effects of liver glycogen production, vasomotor nerve, pancreatic juice digestion, curculigo and carbon monoxide in the liver, and put forward the concept of "internal environment stability".

In a.d. 1850, German physiologist H.von Helmholtz discovered that muscle contracts to form an acid (lactic acid). Measure the nerve conduction velocity.

A.D. 185 1 ~ 1855 French chemist J.-B. Boussingault confirmed that nitrogen in plants comes from nitrate in soil; The carbon source is carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

From 1852 to 1855, German biologist R. remarque and German pathologist R. C. Fairshaw clearly pointed out the universality of cell division respectively.

A.D. 1857 French microbiologist L. Pasteur confirmed that lactic acid fermentation was caused by living microorganisms.

1858, the German pathologist R.C. Fairshaw published Cell Pathology, put forward the concept that "all cells come from cells" and developed the cell theory.

British biologists C.R. Darwin and A.R. Wallace jointly published a paper on the idea of biological evolution. The trend of species forming varieties; On species variation and survival caused by natural selection.

Darwin's Origin of Species was published in A.D. 1859.

In A.D. 186 1 year, German biologist M. Schoultze confirmed that the living bodies of animals and plants and the "pulp" of the lowest organisms are the same substance, and they are collectively called protoplasm.

A.D.1861~1864l. Pasteur refuted the spontaneous generation theory supported by F.A. Pucher through experiments.

From 1862 to 1865, German botanist J.von Sacks pointed out that starch was the product of photosynthesis, and later pointed out that chlorophyll was contained in a special small body (named chloroplast in 1883).

In A.D. 1863, Russian physiologist им sechenov confirmed that there is a mechanism of inhibiting and stimulating spinal cord reflex in midbrain and brain-central inhibition. Initiated the study of brain function.

In a.d. 1864, British anatomist R. Owen described the first relatively complete archaeopteryx skeleton in Jurassic strata in Sorenhofen, Bavaria, Germany in 186 1.

In A.D. 1865, Austrian monk G.J. Mendel read and published the paper "Experiment of Plant Hybridization" the following year, and reported two genetic laws he discovered through pea hybridization experiments. Later known as the "Mendel's Law" of genetics.

In A.D. 1866, German biologist E. Heickell published Introduction to Morphology, in which the word "ecology" was coined for the first time. The book also suggests that protozoa and protozoa should be merged into protozoa Drotista, which is listed as the third boundary between plants and animals.

A.D. 1869 Swiss physiologist J.F. Mischel first isolated nuclides (i.e. nucleic acids).

A.D. 1875 German biologist O. Hertwig pointed out that fertilization is the fusion of male pronucleus and female pronucleus.

A.D. 1876 German doctor and microbiologist R Koch discovered the pathogen of anthrax and established the culture technology of bacteria.

A.D. 1877 German aquatic biologist K.A. mobius put forward the concept of biome.

1879 ~ 1884, German cytologist W. Froemming expounded the mitotic process of animal cells.

German botanist E.A. Strasbourg expounded the process of plant cell mitosis.

1880 ~ 1885 L. Pasteur developed chicken cholera vaccine, anthrax vaccine, erysipelas vaccine and rabies vaccine.

1882, R. Koch discovered Mycobacterium tuberculosis and proved its infectivity.

1883, British biostatisticist F. Gorthon discussed anthropometry, population and its statistical methods. In order to improve the genetic quality of human beings purposefully, he founded "eugenics". He is also one of the founders of biostatistics

Belgian embryologist e van Beneden found that the chromosome of fertilized eggs of ascaris lumbricoides is the sum of female pronuclei and male pronuclei. The first discovery of chromosome meiosis.

From 1883 to 1885, German embryologists W. Lu, E. A. Strasbourg, O. Hertzwig and A. weismann put forward the viewpoint that the nucleus or chromosome is the carrier of genetic material (germplasm).

Italian neuroanatomist and histologist C. Gorky founded the silver nitrate staining method of nerve cells and put forward the network structure theory of nervous system.

In A.D. 1884, the Russian microbiologist ииии Mechnikov discovered phagocytes.

In a.d. 1886, German microbiologists H. Hellriegel and H. Vilfart proved that leguminous plants can fix nitrogen.

In A.D. 1887, German cytologist T H Boveri confirmed the universality of chromosome meiosis in germ cells. The theory of chromosome individualization is put forward, which explains the genetic law discovered by Mendel from the chromosome "behavior"

1889 Spanish neurohistologist s Ramn y Cajal discovered the dendrites and axons of nerve cells.

In A.D. 1890, German military doctor E.A.von Bellin found that the serum of animals infected with certain diseases (such as tetanus and diphtheria) can produce corresponding antitoxin. Created a "serum therapy" in medicine

1890 ~ 1897 Dutch physician C. Aikman found that beriberi was related to the lack of rice bran in food, which became the beginning of studying B vitamins.

In 189 1 year, German zoologist H. Henkin discovered the meiosis process of chromosome pairing and its separation. Observed sex chromosome

German biologist H.A.E Driesch published the experiment of sea urchin eggs, which separated the fertilized eggs of two cell stages according to the cleavage plane. Therefore, each blastomere can develop into a complete but smaller larva.

Russian microbiologist C.H. Vinogradski discovered the chemoautotrophic bacteria-nitrifying bacteria.

AD 1892 Russian microbiologist диииииииииииииииииииииииии10

German zoologist A. weismann's germ plasm theory was published, arguing that germ plasm can be passed down from generation to generation.

In A.D. 1896, German chemist E. Bischner fermented the extract of cell-free yeast to produce alcohol, which proved for the first time that the "brewing enzyme" leaving living cells was still active.

In a.d. 1897, German microbiologists F.A.J. Levreuxand and P.Frosch proved that foot-and-mouth disease was caused by a virus.

1898, China thinker Yan Fu's Evolution was published. Evolution is a free translation of Huxley's Evolution and Ethics, which has a great influence in China's ideological circle. This paper introduces the evolutionary thought of "natural selection, survival of the fittest"

1899, J Loeb, a German-born American physiologist and embryologist, treated sea urchin eggs with different solutions at different times, making them completely parthenogenetic and obtain normal larvae.

In 1900, H. de Fries of the Netherlands, C. E. Collens of Germany and E.von Cermak of Austria rediscovered Mendel's genetic law respectively.

K. landsteiner, an Austrian immunologist, found that red blood cells and serum of different people were cross-tested, and sometimes red blood cells would aggregate. Three blood types, A, B and O, were found in the following year.

In 190 1 year, De Frith's book Catastrophe was published in1901903.

1902, British doctor A.E. Garaude discovered that melanuria (now called phenylketonuria) is a hereditary disease caused by abnormal metabolic pathway.

American cytologist C.E. McLean put forward the view that chromosome (X) is decisive.

Fisher, a German chemist, and Hoffmeister, another German chemist, respectively put forward the peptide bond theory of protein's molecular structure.

British physiologists W.M. Behles and E.H. starling extracted "secretin" and named it "hormone".

ип Pavlov first put forward the concept of "conditioned reflex"

1902 ~ 1903 German biochemist A. Kausel and Russian-American biochemist D. A. Levin separated cytosine from thymic nucleic acid. Before and after (1879 ~ 1909). They cooperated with other scientists to analyze four bases and two riboses of nucleic acid.

From 1902 to 1904, American biologist and doctor W.S. Sutton and German biologist T.H. Boveri put forward the theory that chromosomes are the basis of genetic material, because Mendelian inheritance is parallel to the behavior of chromosomes in cells.

In A.D. 1905, American cytologists, embryologists, geneticists E.B. Wilson and N.M. Stevens independently determined the sex relationship of chromosomes according to cytological facts. Point out that XX is female and XY or XO is male.

1906, the British physiologist C.S. Sherrington published The Integration of the Nervous System, which systematically expounded the integration function of the central nervous system, deeply analyzed the reflex mechanism of the spinal cord, and put forward the basic concepts of neuron and synaptic activity.

A.M. Lutz, a Danish botanist, discovered tetraploid plants in A.D. 1907.

French surgeon, pioneer of organ transplantation and experimental biologist A Karel successfully cultured the cells of warm-blooded animals in vitro in the United States. Since then, tissue culture methods have been applied to many aspects of biological research.

British mathematician G.H. Hardy and German doctor W. Vaimberg independently found that in an infinite random mating population without mutation, migration and selection, gene frequency and genotype frequency will remain unchanged from generation to generation, which is later called Hardy-Vaimbarg Law.

1909, Danish geneticist W.L. Johansen put forward some basic concepts of genetics such as "gene", "genotype" and "phenotype".

In a.d. 19 10, American geneticist T.H. Morgan discovered the phenomenon of sex-linked inheritance, and proved that "gene" was located on chromosome for the first time through experiments.

C fink, an American biochemist born in Poland in 19 1, isolated active white crystals against beriberi from rice bran in Britain, and named these essential micronutrients vitamins.

19 12 years, British biochemist F.G. Hopkins confirmed the existence of vitamins through experiments and put forward the concept of malnutrition.

German biochemist Ou Warburg proved that there is a respiratory enzyme that activates oxygen in cells, and found that cyanide can inhibit the activity of this enzyme, suggesting that iron is needed for respiration.

In a.d. 19 14, American biochemist e.r. Kendall isolated pure thyroxine.

A.D.1915 T.H. Morgan and his students A.H. Sturtevant and C.B. bridges published the principle of Mendel's inheritance: a large number of experiments with fruit flies proved that genes were linearly arranged on chromosomes, found the phenomena of linkage and exchange, and supplemented and developed Mendel's law.

German chemist R.M. Willstaetter found that magnesium ions in chlorophyll molecules are connected by four nitrogen atoms, and nitrogen is located in four closed-loop hydrocarbon chains, thus proposing that the position of magnesium in chlorophyll molecules is the same as that of iron in heme molecules.

British microbiologist F. W. Twort discovered the phenomenon of bacteriolysis. 19 17 French Canadian F.H. de Erel named this bacteriolytic factor phage.

American nutritionist E.V. mccollum discovered vitamin A,1922 E.V. mccollum and others discovered vitamin D, and proved that it was related to rickets. He also divided vitamins into water-soluble and oil-soluble categories.

A.D. 19 16 German botanist H. Winkler found that after tomato was grafted with Solanum nigrum, the bud growing at the cutting point was tetraploid. This is an artificially obtained somatic allotetraploid (chimera).

A d 19 17 was proposed by Danish botanist O. Winer. The theory that tetraploid plants in nature are mutated from diploids.

American geneticist D.F. Jones established a two-hybrid breeding method to make corn yield high, which was put forward according to American geneticist G.H. Schell's discovery in 1908 that varieties with weak self-crossing can restore their advantages through hybridization.

19 18 german embryologist H. Spaemann discovered embryo induction and "organizer" effect in embryo development.

In a.d.1918 ~1921year, China botanist Zhong Guanguang (1868 ~ 1940) spent about four years collecting plant specimens with footprints all over North China, Yangtze River Basin and South China.

1920, J.von Uexkull, a German biologist, published Theoretical Biology, introducing the concept of environment into ecology.

192 1 R.B. Goldschmidt, a zoologist and geneticist who was born in Germany and later came to the United States, published the first article on industrial blackening of Biston betularia. This is a 25-year study of evolution by natural selection.

Austrian-American physiologist O. Levy proved in Germany that after stimulating the vagus nerve, a substance that slows the heartbeat is produced, which is called vagus nerve substance.

China biologist Bing Zhi (1886 ~ 1965) founded the first university biology department in China (excluding the universities run by foreign churches in China).

1922, Canadian physiologists F.G. Wanjin and C.H. Best extracted pure insulin.

Institute of Biology, Chinese Science Society, the first biological research institution in China, which was established by the zoologist Bing Zhi, botanist Hu Xiansu and Yang Quan (Xingfo), was formally established in Nanjing on August 1922.

1923, Argentine physiologist B.A. Osei discovered the effect of the anterior pituitary on glucose metabolism, especially on diabetes, and discovered the control function of pituitary for the first time.

Swedish physical chemist T. Swedberg established the first ultracentrifuge.

Estrogen was isolated by American biochemist E.A. Deus.

In A.D. 1924, the Soviet biochemist аи Oparin published The Origin of Life and put forward the chemical origin theory of life.

Cytochrome discovered by polish-born British biochemist d keeling. 1927 puts forward a preliminary idea of electron transfer in the process of biological oxidation.

In A.D. 1925, American cytologist E.B. Wilson published Cells in Development and Inheritance, which was the third edition of his cytology (1896), but it was greatly revised and enriched in content. This book summarizes the research of classical cytology and attempts to integrate embryology and genetics at the cellular level.

Cai Qiao, a physiologist in China, found that there is a functional area of vision and eye movement in the midbrain structure of American kangaroo-anterior tectal nucleus, also known as "Cai's area"

In AD 1926, Swedish biochemists A. Tiselius and T. Svedbergh established electrophoresis.

American biochemist J.B. sumner was the first to obtain the crystal of urease, a pure enzyme, and proved the protein essence of the enzyme.

T.H. Morgan's Gene Theory was published (revised 1928). This paper systematically expounds the gene theory of genetics at the cellular level.

At the suggestion of H. H. Dale, a British physiologist and pharmacologist, O. Levy, a German pharmacologist, further inhibited acetylcholinesterase with physostigmine based on the vagal substance he found in 192 1. It was found that acetylcholine could be strengthened and prolonged after stimulating the vagus nerve of frog heart, which proved that acetylcholine was a chemical transmitter of nerve conduction. In 1930s, H.H. Dale made a series of studies on nerve-muscle, which proved that acetylcholine was the chemical transmitter of nerve conduction in viscera and striated muscle, and contributed to the establishment of synaptic transmission chemistry theory.

Animal Ecology, published by British ecologist C.S. Elton in A.D. 1927, emphasized the necessity of independent research on population. Their research work laid the foundation for population ecology.

American geneticist H.J. Mahler published an experimental report on artificially inducing mutation in Drosophila by X-ray irradiation.

From 65438 to 0928, Hsien Wu, a biochemist in China, and his collaborators conducted a series of comparative studies on vegetarians and carnivores, which proved that vegetarians grew poorly and the nutritional value of plant protein was lower than that of animal protein. They also compiled the earliest food ingredient list in China.

British microbiologist A. Fleming discovered the bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects of penicillin.

Winter, a Dutch-American plant physiologist, first discovered auxin.

China physiologist Zhu Henian's research shows that the paraventricular nucleus of kangaroo diencephalon has the characteristics of nerve secretion.

The theory of modern development written by L.von Bertalanfi, an Austrian-born American biologist, and Theoretical Biology written by 1932 expounded that all living things are a natural system with limited time and space and complex structure.

In a.d. 1929, American biochemist C.E. Cory and his wife discovered the transformation between muscle glycogen, blood lactic acid, liver glycogen and blood sugar, which was later called Cory cycle.

German chemist A. butenandt extracted androgen crystals.

D.A. Levin found that nucleic acids can be divided into deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), but his "four nucleotide structure hypothesis" is wrong.

German biochemists C. H. Fiske, Y. Saba-Rowe and K. Lohmann separated ATP from muscle extract, and K. Lohmann clarified the chemical structure of ATP in 1935.

China botanists Li Jidong and Yin Hongzhang discovered the instantaneous effect of light changes on the rate of photosynthesis. Get an accurate chart.

Pei Wenzhong, a paleontologist and paleoanthropologist from China, discovered the first Peking man's skull and the remains of fire in Longgushan, Zhoukoudian, about 50 kilometers southwest of Beijing, which is of great significance to the study of human origin. 1927, Budasheng, a Canadian anthropologist from Peking Union Medical College, identified the mortar kiln fossils found there as a new genus of human beings and named them Sinanthropus pekinensis.

1930, the book Genetic Principles of Natural Selection published by British geneticist and biostatisticist R.A. Fisher began to combine Mendelian genetics with natural selection theory.

In A.D. 193 1 year, China biochemist Hsien Wu proposed that protein denaturation was due to the change of the structure of protein and the loosening of tightly wound polypeptide chains in protein molecules.

In 1932, German physicists M. Knohl and E. ruska created the first electron microscope model. The model improved by ruska in 1933 is considered as the prototype of modern electron microscope.

German biochemist H.A. krebs and his assistant K. hensley discovered the ornithine cycle in urea synthesis.

American chemist Yuri discovered deuterium. Metabolites were labeled with heavy element isotopes to study metabolic pathways in organisms.

Chinese plant physiologist Tang Peisong discovered the existence and function of cytochrome oxidase in plants.

Te Pei Feng, a physiologist in China, discovered the phenomenon that resting metabolic energy of muscle increases due to muscle elongation, which is called "von's effect". During the period of 1936 ~ 1940, he initiated an important research field of neuromuscular junction in China and conducted a series of physical and chemical reactions.

In a.d. 1933, American geneticist T.S. painter discovered the giant chromosomes of salivary gland cells in Drosophila, which provided materials for making detailed chromosome maps.

A.D. 1934 Norwegian biochemist J.A. Flynn discovered that phenylketonuria was caused by the lack of phenylalanine hydroxylase.

R.R. Bensley, a Canadian-born American anatomist, isolated mitochondria from guinea pig hepatocytes and initiated the study of organelles.

In a.d. 1935, German biochemists G.G. Embrun, O. Meyerhof and J.K. panas completed all the steps of 12 and expounded the glycolysis process of glycogen.

American biochemist W.M. Stanley isolated and crystallized tobacco mosaic virus.

Austrian zoologist and individual ecologist K.Z. Lorenz published Traces, and found that some animals' instincts are inherited, while others are impressions left by early life.

British plant ecologist A.G. Tansley put forward the concept of "system ecology".

Hungarian radiochemist and biochemist Hevesy made artificial radioactive phosphorus and began to study biochemistry with radioisotope tracer method.

A.D. 1936 German microbiologist M. Schlesinger reported that the chemical composition of phage contains about the same amount of protein and DNA.

American chemists A.E. mirsky and L.C. Pauline developed the hydrogen bonding theory, and proposed that hydrogen bonding plays an important role in the formation of stable configuration of polypeptide bonds in protein structure. During denaturation, the hydrogen bond was destroyed and the configuration was also destroyed.

T dobrzanski, an American geneticist and evolutionist of Russian descent, published "Genetics and the Origin of Species" in A.D. 1937, which combined cytogenetics with evolutionism and established "comprehensive evolutionism".

H.A. krebs put forward the idea of "citric acid cycle" as a public metabolic pathway in Britain, and H.A. krebs confirmed this idea with experiments in 1940.

Zhang Xijun, a physiologist in China, founded the hypothesis of "Vagus nerve-posterior pituitary reflex", which started the research on the endocrine regulation of pituitary gland by nerves.

1940, British plant physiologist R. Hill measured the oxygen evolution reaction of chloroplasts in vitro.

British Austrian pathologist H.W. Flory and British German biochemist E.B. Ernst Borishain successfully prepared concentrated penicillin extract.

British biochemists A.J.P Martin and R.L.M Singer established color chromatography, which later developed into paper chromatography.

In A.D. 194 1 year, F.A. Lippmann, a biochemist of German descent, put forward the concept of high-energy phosphate bond for efficient transfer of chemical energy.

American biochemical geneticist G.W. Biddle cooperated with biochemist E.L. tatum to put forward the hypothesis that "one gene is one enzyme".

American ecologist R.L. Lin Deman published research reports on "food chain efficiency" and "energy pyramid", which promoted the study of ecosystem.

Hu Jingfu, an entomologist in China, published a six-volume Catalogue of Insects in China. This is the result of his collection and research which lasted 12 years.

AD 1942