From 65438 to 1960s, content psychology came into being in Germany. Fechner and Feng Te are the main representatives of content psychology.
Fechner's psychophysics (180 1- 1887) is a rigorous science about the functional relationship or dependence between body and mind or between external stimuli and psychological phenomena. This is an independent subject between psychology and physics. Inspired by Herbert, Fechner thought that psychology can be measured. After many experiments and deduction, he summarized the relationship between sensory intensity and stimulus intensity as the following formula: S=C*log(R/R0), where S- sensory intensity; C- a constant applicable to every different feeling; R- stimulus intensity; Stimulation intensity at R0- threshold.
This formula shows that the effect of stimulation is not absolute, but the intensity relative to the existing feeling. In the research of psychophysics, Fechner once created three psychological measurement methods: the minimum perceptible difference method, the right-wrong method and the average difference method. Fechner brought the quantitative measurement method of physics into psychology, which provided a tool for later psychological experimental research. From the development history of modern psychology, Fechner should be regarded as one of the main founders of modern western psychology, and his psychophysics laid the foundation for the establishment of Feng Te psychology.
Feng Te (1832- 1920) is one of the founders of modern psychology. In the history of psychology, his name is directly related to the independence of psychology and the establishment of experimental psychology.
Fechner (1801.4—1887.11) is a famous German physicist and the founder of psychophysics. Philosophically speaking, Fechner is an idealist animist. He believes that everything has a soul, and the heart is inseparable from things. The heart is the main thing, and things are only the appearance of the heart. He made accurate mathematical measurements of thoughts and things and tried to determine the relationship between them. 1860 The publication of his Outline of Psychophysics established his position as the founder of psychophysics.
structuralism
Psychological school
Constructivist Psychology School, also known as Constructivist Psychology School, was founded in the United States by Tieqinna, the most loyal student in Feng Te, nearly 20 years after the formation of Content Psychology School. It is the inheritance and further development of content psychology. However, the constructivist psychology school is by no means equal to the content psychology school, and there are differences between them in time, place, research methods and specific content.
Constructivist psychology has an important relationship with Tieqinna's personal efforts. And in
Tieqinna, a representative figure of structuralist psychology
The iron rider fell after his death. And it has been developed in the debate with the functionalist school of psychology.
Spirit of the times:
A hundred schools of thought contend in the scientific community. Germany has actually become the center of psychological research in the world at that time.
Debate between Functionalism Psychology and Constructivism Psychology
In the structuralist schools of psychology, only Tiechener has always adhered to the obvious tradition. He is a firm and argumentative scholar. Tieqinna died of a brain tumor on 1927, and the debate gradually subsided.
The Contributions and Limitations of Constructivist Psychology School in the Development of Psychology
Constructivism is the first school in the history of psychology to systematically study psychological problems by using experimental methods. Under their demonstration and advocacy, the experimental research of western psychology was rapidly spread and developed at that time.
The theoretical basis is pure empiricism.
Take psychology as a pure science, only study the content of psychology itself, study its actual existence, and don't discuss its significance and function. So it's extremely narrow.
-
functionalpsychology
Psychological school
Functionalist psychology in a broad sense has experienced a long historical period since the mid-1950s of 19, including psychologism school, Wü rzburg school, Geneva school, behaviorism school and Colombian functionalism school. The narrow sense of functionalism psychology school mainly refers to the Chicago functionalism psychology school (pragmatic psychology school) in the United States. Appeared at the end of 19 and the beginning of the 20th century.
Spirit of the times:
Since Darwin's theory of evolution appeared in 1859, both religion and theology have suffered a fatal blow. James and Dewey combined subjective idealism, utilitarian philosophy and empirical criticism and created a set of pragmatic philosophy by using Darwin's theory of evolution. Its basic view is that "existence is useful", and there is no objective measure of truth, the only criterion is success.
The Contribution and Limitation of Functionalism Psychology School in the Development of Psychology
Emphasizing the adaptation and function of psychological phenomena to the objective environment is not limited to the study of conscious experience.
Pay attention to the efficacy and application of psychology in various fields and improve the research methods of psychology.
-
behaviourism
Psychological school
Academic background: Behavioral psychology, as a rebel of traditional psychology, is a modern schools of psychology based on mechanical materialism and positivism philosophy and influenced by animal psychology and functionalism psychology.
The essence of behavioral psychology is to absolutely oppose consciousness and behavior.
A theoretical pioneer:
Descartes: animals are just machines occupying space, and their actions are only mechanical actions; Man is also a machine, but a conscious soul is added to his body.
19 13- 1930 is an early behaviorism period, which was founded by American psychologist Watson on the basis of Pavlov's conditioned reflex theory. He advocated that psychology should abandon too many subjective things such as consciousness and images, and only study observed stimuli and objectively measurable reactions. Regardless of the intermediate links, Watson called it "black-box operation." He believes that human behavior is acquired, and the environment determines a person's behavior pattern. Normal behavior and pathological behavior are obtained through learning, and can also be changed, increased or eliminated through learning. He believes that if we find out the regular relationship between environmental stimulus and behavioral response, we can predict the response according to the stimulus, or infer the stimulus according to the response, so as to predict and control the behavior of animals and people. In his view, behavior is a combination of various physical reactions used by organisms to adapt to environmental stimuli. Some of these reactions are manifested externally and some are hidden internally. In his eyes, there is no difference between humans and animals, and they all follow the same rules.
From 65438 to 0930, the new behaviorism theory appeared, and the new behaviorism represented by tolman revised Watson's extreme views. They pointed out that there is an intermediate variable between individual stimulus and behavioral response. This intermediate variable refers to the individual's physical and psychological state at that time. They are the actual determinants of behavior, including demand variables and cognitive variables. Demand variables are essentially motives, including sex, hunger and the need for safety in the face of danger. Cognitive variables are abilities, including object perception and motor skills.
There is also a radical behaviorism branch in the new behaviorism, represented by Skinner. Skinner put forward operational conditioning on the basis of Pavlov's classical conditioning. He made a "peeling box" himself. He put a special device in the box. Press the lever and food will appear. He put a hungry mouse in the box, and it would run around and touch it freely.
Skinner, the representative figure of behavioral psychology
You can get food by pressing the lever occasionally. Since then, mice have pressed the lever more and more frequently, that is, they have learned how to get food by pressing the lever. Skinner named it operant conditioning or instrumental conditioning, and food was fortified. The process of using reinforcement to increase the frequency of a certain reaction (that is, behavior) is called reinforcement. Skinner believes that intensive training is the main mechanism to explain the physical learning process.
Spirit of the times:
The trend of objectivism. /kloc-since the 0/8th century, the great development of science has broken many things that were taken for granted or superstitious before. Mysticism is challenged. Positivism has an unprecedented market. Emphasize experience and social knowledge that can be used for objective observation.
The contribution and limitation of behaviorist psychology school in the development of psychology
It promotes the objectification research of psychology and expands the research field of psychology.
Paying attention to behavior not only promotes the application of psychology, but also makes people see new hope.
Behaviorism appeared in the United States, and natural science developed rapidly in the early 20th century. Some young psychologists are dissatisfied with the Feng Te School. They think that psychology can't study consciousness, and psychology is in the same position as other natural sciences. They should study the tangible things, that is, behavior, just like other natural sciences.
Behaviorism holds that people's psychological consciousness and activities are unpredictable and inaccessible, and psychology should study people's behavior. Behavior is a combination of body responses of organisms to environmental changes, which is nothing more than muscle contraction and gland secretion. Psychological research on behavior is to find out the relationship between stimulus and response, so as to infer response from stimulus and stimulus from response, so as to predict and control human behavior.
The main representatives of this school are Watson (1878 ~ 1958) and skinner (1904 ~). Watson's main points: (1) mechanical materialism determinism; (2) It is considered that psychology is a natural science and a department that studies human activities and behaviors. It requires psychology to give up all relations with consciousness and puts forward two requirements: first, the difference between psychology and other natural sciences is only a division of labor; Second, we must give up those concepts in psychology that cannot be explained in scientific terms, such as consciousness, mental state, psychology, will, image and so on; (3) I strongly demand that the objective method of behaviorism be used to oppose and replace the method of introspection. I think there are four kinds of objective methods: one is natural observation without instruments and the other is experimental observation with instruments; Second, the oral report method; Third, the conditioned reflex method; Fourth, test methods. Skinner belongs to the new school of behavioral psychology. He only studied observable behavior and tried to establish a functional relationship between stimulus and response. He believes that the event between stimulus and reaction is not an objective thing and should be ruled out. Skinner believes that the problem of consciousness can be explained without giving up the behaviorist position. [3]
-
Complete form
Psychological school
19 12 years, m Wei Teman published the article "experimental research on sports", which marked the rise of a school.
Some theoretical pioneers:
German philosopher Kant's philosophical thought: perception is not the combination of passive impression and sensory factors, but the active organization of these factors into a complete experience and combined experience.
Physicist Mach (Sensory Analysis 1885): The feelings of spatial patterns (such as geometric figures) and temporal patterns (such as tunes) have nothing to do with elements. Even though the spatial direction of the observer's gaze at the object may change, his visual or auditory perception of the object remains unchanged. For example, no matter from which side or from the top or from a corner, the table is still a table in our perception. The same series of sounds, such as a tune, is still the same tune in our perception, even though it may change the speed. In my opinion, even if the scale changes or there is a wrong sound, it will not affect people's perception of this piece. )
Erlengfeld: Some characteristics of experience cannot be explained by the combination of traditional senses. These qualities are called gestalt qualities, or formal qualities. Perception is based on something other than personal feelings. Melody is a form, independent of the special feelings that make it up.
Spirit of the times:
In the last decades of the19th century, the concept of atomism has been less and less used because of the recognition and acceptance of the concept of force field in physics. Such as magnetism, light and electricity. These force fields are considered to have both extensiveness and completeness of space or modeling. They are regarded as new structural entities, not the sum of individual elements or particles.
Wei Teman's Similar Motion Experiment
along with
Kaufka, the representative figure of Gestalt Psychology
Kaufka and Kohler are experimental subjects. Wei Teman used a speed indicator to project two rays through two slits, one vertical and the other at an angle of 20 or 30 degrees to the vertical. If one light is displayed through the slit first, and then the other light is displayed, and there is a long time interval (more than 200 milliseconds) between the two lights, then the subjects will see two lights that appear one after another. If the time interval between two rays is short, the subject will see two consecutive rays. However, there is an optimal time interval (about 60 milliseconds) between two rays, and the subjects see the rays move from one place to another and then come back. This is an obvious example that the whole is not just the sum of its parts.
The Contributions and Limitations of Gestalt Psychology School in the Development of Psychology
Gestalt psychology emphasizes that the whole is not equal to the sum of the parts, but exists before the parts, which restricts the nature and significance of the parts. This view accords with objective facts to some extent. Gestalt psychologists, from this point of view, resolutely oppose the elemental analysis of any psychological phenomenon, which plays a certain role in exposing the mistakes of mechanism and elementarism in psychology. At the same time, they have done a lot of experimental research work in the field of perception and achieved many scientific achievements. At present, some knowledge about the law of perception in general psychology textbooks, such as the occurrence of motion-like phenomena and the significance of the relationship between graphics and background in the process of perception, are basically derived from the research results of Gestalt School. In addition, Kohler's "epiphany" and Weitemo's "creative thinking" also have certain influence on the study of learning.
Gestalt psychology, as an independent school, makes people interested in conscious experience. At least it is meaningful to take it as a legal research field of psychology and continue to promote people's research and interest in conscious experience. At the same time, the Gestalt school's fair and firm criticism of the contemporary school also had an important impact on the development of psychology.
Limitations:
The world of direct experience is considered as the only real and knowable world.
Simplify all psychological problems into mathematical problems. This has actually violated the system view.
-
psychoanalysis
Psychological school
Psychoanalysis school came into being in 1900, and its founder was Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist S Floyd (1856- 1939). The theory of this school was widely circulated and had great influence in the 1920s.
Freud believed that human psychology can be divided into two parts: consciousness and subconsciousness. The subconscious mind cannot be realized by itself, which includes primitive blind impulses, various instincts and repressed motives and desires after birth. He emphasized the importance of the subconscious, and believed that sexual instinct was the basic motive force of human psychology and the eternal force to manipulate personal destiny and determine social development.
Freud divided personality into three parts: id, ego and superego, in which id is born with innate instinct and primitive desire; The self is separated from the id, and between the id and the outside world, it controls and regulates the id; The superego is a "moral self", including conscience and ideal, and its main function is to guide the self to limit the impulse of the id. The three are usually in a state of balance, and if the balance is destroyed, it will lead to mental illness.
Psychoanalytic school attaches great importance to subconscious and psychotherapy, expands the research field of psychology and obtains some important laws of psychopathology, but some of their main theories have been opposed by many people. In the mid-1930s, a group of psychologists represented by H.S. Sullivan, K. Horney and E. Fromm opposed Freud's instinctive theory, universality theory and personality structure theory, and emphasized the influence of cultural background and social factors on mental illness and personality development, thus forming a new psychoanalysis in the United States. New psychoanalysis still retains some basic ideas in Freud's theory. Although there are different concepts in his theory, in the final analysis, it is the subconscious drive and innate potential that play the main role.
The main representatives of this school are Freud (1856 ~ 1939), Adler (1870 ~ 1937) and jung (1875 ~19/kloc). [4]
Old psychoanalytic school
Pre-orthodoxy (emphasizing that biological factor 3 is the foundation of human spiritual life);
Freud: Freud's psychoanalytic theory
Freud, the representative figure of psychoanalytic psychology
New school (focusing on social spirit and culture):
Jung:
Adler
Dear:
Fromm:
Sullivan:
Psychoanalysis schools of psychology's Contribution to the Development of Psychology: The Research Field of Unconscious and Subconscious.
Limitations: 1, universalism tendency; 2. Biologicalization trend; This theory is subjective.
-
humanitarianism
Psychological school
Humanistic psychology rose in the United States in 1950s and 1960s, and it is one of the main schools of contemporary psychology in the United States. The humanistic psychology school represented by Maslow, Rogers and others parted ways with psychoanalysis school and behaviorism school, forming the third ideological trend of psychology.
Obviously influenced by phenomenology and existentialism.
Spirit of the times:
Anti-cultural movement. Dissatisfied with society.
Founded by American psychologist A.H. Maslow, the representative figure now is C.R. Rogers. Humanism opposes the tendency to vulgarize and animalize human psychology, so it is called the third ideological trend of psychology.
1. Maslow's self-realization theory
Rogers, the representative figure of humanistic psychology
The hierarchy of needs theory, that is, Ma Si Knorr's hierarchy of needs theory, was put forward by abraham maslow, an American Jewish humanistic psychologist, in 1943, which divided human needs into five categories from low to high, namely, physiological needs, security needs, social needs, respect needs and self-realization needs. It is one of the theories of behavioral science that a person should at least meet the needs of a higher level. The first kind of need belongs to lack of need, but it can be stimulated by lack, and both human beings and animals have this kind of need. Once they are satisfied, the tension is eliminated and the excitement is reduced, they lose motivation. The second kind of need belongs to the need of growth, which can generate growth momentum and is unique to human beings. It is a heartfelt desire to transcend survival satisfaction, develop and realize one's own potential. Maslow called it "peak experience", which satisfied the individual's need to enter the state of psychological freedom, embodied the essence and value of human beings and produced a deep sense of happiness. Maslow believes that human beings have inherent natures such as truth, goodness, beauty, justice and joy, and have the same values and moral standards. The key to realize human self-realization lies in improving people's "self-awareness" or self-awareness, so that people can realize their inner potential or value, and humanistic psychology is to promote people's self-realization.
2. Rogers' self-theory.
A newborn baby has no concept of self and is with him (her) and him (her).
Psychological illusion diagram
With the interaction between man and environment, he (she) begins to distinguish between himself and himself. After the initial self-concept was formed, people's self-realization tendency began to be activated. Driven by the power of self-realization, children try various activities in the environment and have a lot of experience. Through the automatic evaluation process of the body, some experiences will make him feel satisfied and happy, while others will be the opposite. Satisfied and happy experiences will make children seek to maintain and reproduce, while dissatisfied and unhappy experiences will make children try their best to avoid them. Among the positive experiences of children, one is the experience of being cared for by others, and the other is the experience of being respected by others. Unfortunately, the satisfaction of children's needs for care and respect depends entirely on others. Others (including parents) decide whether to give care and respect according to whether the child's behavior conforms to their own value standards and behavior norms, so others' care and respect are conditional, and these conditions reflect the values of parents and society. Rogers called this condition a value condition. Children constantly experience these value conditions through their own behaviors, and they will unconsciously internalize these values belonging to their parents or others and become a part of their own structure. Gradually, children are forced to give up the experience of evaluation according to their own physical evaluation process and become the evaluation experience with their own internalized social value norms. As a result, there is alienation between children's self and experience. When the experience conflicts with the ego, the individual will feel threatened by the ego, resulting in anxiety. When feeling that the experience is inconsistent with the self, the individual will use the defense mechanism (distortion, denial and selective perception) to process the experience and make it consistent with the self on the conscious level. If the defense is successful, there will be no adaptation obstacle, and if the defense fails, there will be psychological adaptation obstacle. The goal of Rogers' people-centered therapy is to get rid of the internalized self that does not belong to him and find his own thought, emotion and behavior pattern. In Rogers' words, it means "changing back to himself" and "coming out from behind the mask". Only in this way can people give full play to their role. The essence of humanism is to make people know their own nature, no longer rely on foreign values, make people trust and rely on the evaluation process of the body to deal with experience, eliminate the values imposed on them by the external environment through internalization, let people freely express their thoughts and feelings, decide their own behavior with their own will, control their own destiny, repair the destroyed self-realization potential, and promote the healthy development of personality.
The contribution and limitation of humanistic psychology school in the development of psychology
Oppose the psychoanalytic school that only takes sick people as research objects and regards people as instinctive victims, and also oppose the behaviorist school that regards people as materialized objects. It advocates studying issues that are meaningful to human progress and caring about human values and dignity.
Ignoring the restriction and influence of the times and social environment on human innate potential.
-
Geneva
Psychological school
Geneva School, also known as Piaget School of Psychology, was founded and led by Piaget, an outstanding psychologist and philosopher of Geneva University in Switzerland.
Influenced by Kant.
Spirit of the times:
The idea of openness. The spirit of inclusiveness.
The Contribution and Limitation of Geneva School in the Development of Psychology
Schools of psychology's integration and development. Child psychology.
Western scholars regard Piaget, Pavlov and Freud as the three giants of contemporary psychology.
-
know
Psychological school
Cognitive psychology began in the mid-1950s and developed rapidly after 1960s. 1967 was formally formed. American psychologist Nesser published Cognitive Psychology from 65438 to 0967, which indicates that cognitive psychology has become an independent school.
It has the same inheritance relationship with Feng Te's psychology. Influenced by gestalt psychology. This is a behaviorist response.
Cognitive psychology can be divided into broad sense and narrow sense. In a broad sense, it refers to the study of human cognitive process, which belongs to cognitive psychology. At present, western psychologists usually refer to cognitive psychology in a narrow sense, that is, the so-called information processing psychology, which refers to the study of human cognitive process by analogy, simulation and verification with computers. It is believed that human cognitive process is a process of receiving, coding, storing, exchanging, operating, retrieving, extracting and using information, and this process is summarized into four system modes: perception system, memory system, control system and reaction system. It is emphasized that people's existing knowledge and knowledge structure play a decisive role in their behavior and current cognitive activities. Its most remarkable achievement is the breakthrough research in the field of memory and thinking.
The basic view of modern cognitive psychology is to regard people as information transmitters and information processing systems.
There are three codes in short-term memory:
(1) Auditory coding is sound coding;
② Visual coding is shape code;
③ Semantic coding is meaning coding.
It is believed that people divide things into three codes and store them in three different locations according to their various attributes, and then they can retrieve this memory in three different ways: sound, shape and meaning.
Spirit of the times:
The rapid development of information technology. Research on computer intelligence.
humanism
schools of psychology
Humanistic psychology is unique to China. It believes that only from the perspective of human nature, that is, from the perspective of human nature, can we correctly explain human psychological activities, psychological structure, psychological motivation, personality and its development, psychopathology, clinical psychological diagnosis and correction. Only by grasping human nature can we enter the palace of human psychological world. Its representative is Professor Guo Nianfeng.
The main points are as follows:
1, human nature is a combination of three basic attributes.
2. People's psychological motivation is demand.
3. Personality is the concrete embodiment of human nature in individuals, and human nature is the abstraction of personality.
The connotation of human nature is constantly developing and changing.