The establishment and development of autocratic centralization in Qin and Han Dynasties

(1) Autocratic centralization is the basic system of feudal society in China. The feudal emperor was autocratic and controlled all military affairs. All local power was concentrated in the central government, and all central power was concentrated in the emperor.

(2) During the Warring States Period, Han Fei put forward the theory of autocratic centralization. After Qin Shihuang unified China, he put Han Fei's theory into practice, adopted a series of economic and cultural measures, and established autocratic centralization through the establishment of emperor system, central official system and county system.

(3) In the Han Dynasty, Liu Bang inherited the autocratic centralization initiated by Qin Shihuang, experienced the emperor of Hui, Wen and Jing, and by the time of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, he further controlled the local political power by solving the kingdom problem; He also accepted Dong Zhongshu's suggestion and established the guiding ideology and theoretical basis of feudal monarchy absolutism. In the Han Dynasty, he adopted the system of Chinese and foreign dynasties, set up a bookstore, and implemented the secretariat and accounting system, thus perfecting this system. By the early Eastern Han Dynasty, this system was further strengthened and finalized.

(4) This system is based on the feudal mode of production, adapts to the political and economic needs of the feudal landlord class, is conducive to the consolidation and development of a unified multi-ethnic feudal country, and is conducive to resisting foreign invasion and large-scale water conservancy construction. But it also has obvious disadvantages: it strengthens the control and rule over the people, and the personal role of the emperor has a great influence on the political situation, which is easy to produce corruption and autocracy, which is also an important factor for the long-term continuation of political corruption in China feudal society, especially.

Economy in pre-Qin period

Establishment of Economic-intensive Agricultural Economic Model

1, agriculture:

(1) Primitive agriculture: Originated about 1 10,000 years ago, millet and rice were first planted in the world, using stone knives, axes and plows, and the cultivation method was slash and burn; Social productivity is low, land belongs to clan commune, clan members work collectively and consume on average.

(2) Shang and Zhou Dynasties; Wooden scarifying tools, stone hoes and plows are widely used, and a small number of bronze farm tools appear; We already know how to ditch and drain water, weed and cultivate soil, compost and control insects and pests; During the Western Zhou Dynasty, the main crops of later generations were already available, and people moved from frequent migration to settlement. Under the Jing Tian system, slave owners drove slaves and civilians to cultivate collectively.

Well field system: characteristics: all land belongs to the state; The sealed person shall enjoy it from generation to generation, but shall not be transferred, bought or sold, and at the same time pay tribute; Civilians and peace

Slaves cultivated collectively.

Disintegration: During the Spring and Autumn Period, social productivity improved and a large number of private fields appeared; Disputes between governors further developed the land transfer relationship; The labor force of miners is decreasing.

(3) During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, iron farm tools and Niu Geng were used and gradually popularized; The famous water conservancy projects are Dujiangyan (Chengdu Plain in Sichuan is known as the "land of abundance") and Zheng Guoqu (Guanzhong Plain in Shaanxi is known as the "fertile land of thousands of miles"); Adopt advanced farming method-ridge farming method; Well-field system collapsed and feudal land ownership was formed. The self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy with the family as the unit became the most basic mode of social production in ancient China, and it gradually disintegrated after the Opium War.

Feudal private land system:

Reason: Productivity has developed and the well field system has been destroyed.

Lu initially implemented mu tax, which recognized the legitimacy of private ownership of land.

The reform movement in the Warring States period, such as the Shang Yang Reform, established the feudal private ownership of land through legal forms.

Disadvantages: allowing land to be freely transferred and traded leads to land merger and social polarization, and the government cannot fundamentally.

About the solution.

Small-scale peasant economy:

Reasons: The appearance and popularization of iron farm tools in Niu Geng have improved social productivity; Establishment of feudal private land system

Features: Taking a family as a unit, men plow and women weave; Self-sufficient natural economy; Farmers need to bear heavy taxes and the small-scale peasant economy is very fragile.

Error-prone and confusing point

2, the rise and development of handicraft industry:

(1) business form and characteristics:

During the Shang and Zhou Dynasties, handicrafts were completely run by the government. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, government-run, private and family handicrafts coexisted.

Government-run handicraft industry: directly operated by the government, centralized production, regardless of cost, exquisite products. Dominated for a long time.

Private handicraft industry: private operation, mainly producing products for private consumption.

Household handicraft industry: represented by textiles, it is a sideline of farmers. Products are mainly used for tax payment and household consumption, and a small number of products are put on the market.

(3) Major industries and achievements:

Silk industry: Four or five thousand years ago, China had raised silkworms and had silk products. There were looms in Shang Dynasty. The Western Zhou Dynasty has been able to produce twill jacquard fabrics.

Copper smelting: In the late primitive society, China people had mastered the technology of copper smelting, and bronze casting entered a prosperous period in Shang and Zhou Dynasties. During the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, bronze casting industry was the representative of handicraft industry, so Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties were called "Bronze Age".

Iron smelting industry: In the late Western Zhou Dynasty, China had iron tools.

Porcelain industry: primitive porcelain appeared in Shang Dynasty.

3. Business, transportation and urban development

(1) The Xia Dynasty had a certain scale of traffic, and the traffic in the Western Zhou Dynasty was more developed than that in the Shang Dynasty.

(2) There were professional businessmen in Shang Dynasty, taking "shellfish" as the currency, and the policy of "industrial and commercial food officials" was implemented in Shang and Zhou Dynasties;

"industrial and commercial food officer" system:

It is the basic system of industrial and commercial development in the Zhou Dynasty, especially in the Spring and Autumn Period of the Western Zhou Dynasty. The official handicraft system in the Western Zhou Dynasty means that craftsmen and businessmen at that time were slaves under the control of the government and had to engage in production and trade in accordance with government regulations and requirements. Under this system, both the Zhou royal family and the princes had various handicraft workshops, which were managed by the government and under their jurisdiction. The various producers in these handicraft workshops are called Baigong. They are not only craftsmen with a certain skill level, but also managers engaged in handicraft production.

(3) During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, commercial prosperity was broken. There are many commodity markets and big businessmen.

(4) During the Warring States Period, Shang Yang advocated the policy of restraining business.

Analysis of key points and difficulties

Formation, characteristics and influence of small-scale peasant economy

The large-scale collective farming system of "coupling thousands of grains" in the Western Zhou Dynasty ... In the Qin and Han Dynasties, it was mainly a small-scale peasant system of "one husband, five people and a hundred acres of land". -Cultural history of China.

It is also a matter for farmers to go out early and return late, cultivate crops and trees, and harvest more millet. Women stay up late, spinning shows pregnancy. This is also a matter of treating Marcy Xu Ge's bundle of cloth. -"Seven sons of Mozi"

Five acres of houses, trees are mulberry, and fifty people can wear clothes and silks. Chickens, dolphins and dogs are all domestic animals, so there is no time to waste. Seventy people can eat meat. One hundred acres of land, if you don't hurry, how many people in a family can be hungry. -"Mencius Hui Liang Wang Shang"

Yeoman farmers were the targets of direct exploitation by feudal countries. In order to ensure the supply of taxes and corvees, feudal countries have always attached importance to the existence of this class. "Stabilizing small farmers" is a good policy for the long-term stability of feudal dynasties. Every new dynasty pays special attention to this point when it is established. Its rulers always adopt policies such as rewarding reclamation and actively cultivate yeomen.

-According to Ye Xiansi's "Huizhou Rural Society and Tenant System in Ming and Qing Dynasties"

1. According to the above materials and knowledge, summarize the main characteristics of ancient small-scale peasant economy in China.

Dispersion of materials: the farming method has changed from collective labor to individual farming with family as the unit.

Material 2 is closed: the industrial structure is embodied in the combination of agriculture and cottage industry, with men plowing and women weaving.

The purpose of material 3 production is self-sufficiency and the fragility of small-scale peasant economy.

2. According to historical data and knowledge, point out the historical position of small-scale peasant economy, and make analysis and evaluation.

Historical position: Small-scale peasant economy is a self-sufficient natural economy, the basic mode of agricultural production in China feudal society, and the basis of feudal social rule.

Evaluation: In the whole feudal society of China, the small-scale peasant economy has always been dominant, and it is the main source of financial revenue of feudal countries. Its development is related to the rise and fall of social economy and the security of ancient regime. The firm existence of feudal natural economy is an important reason for the slow development and long-term continuation of feudal society in China.

Small-scale peasant economy promoted the development of intensive agriculture in ancient China. However, the weakness of small-scale peasant economy, such as dispersion, closeness, conservatism and fragility, led to people's "moving from other places" and conservative thinking of not striving for progress, which seriously hindered the innovation and development of agricultural production technology and handicraft technology, the social division of labor and the development of commodity economy, especially in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, which not only seriously hindered the development of capitalism, but also hindered the transformation of feudal society to modern society. Sadness and one of the obstacles to the development of socialist market economy in mining field.

Pre-Qin culture

The Foundation of China Traditional Culture

(A) "A hundred schools of thought contend"

1. Background: Great changes have taken place in China society during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. Economically: the well site system collapsed. Politically, the enfeoffment system collapsed. In terms of class, the "scholar" of the lower class is valued by the ruling classes in various countries. Ideologically, private schools are rising.

2. Main schools and representatives:

A. Confucianism:

(1) Confucius, founder of Confucianism;

Advocacy: the core of thought: "benevolence"

Political proposition: require rulers to govern the country by virtue, cherish the people's strength and win the trust of the people; I hope to restore the ritual and music system in the Western Zhou Dynasty and advocate "self-denial and self-defense".

Educational thought: advocate private teaching, advocate "teaching without distinction" and "teaching students in accordance with their aptitude".

Cultural classics: sorting out six classics (poetry, calligraphy, ceremony, change, music, spring and autumn). )

(2) Mencius:

Politically, it advocates the implementation of "benevolent government" and further puts forward the people-oriented thought of "people are the most important, the country is the second, and the monarch is the least" ("people are more important than the monarch");

Ethics: advocate "human nature is good" and restore and expand human goodness through the implementation of benevolent policies.

(3) Xunzi:

Political opinions: advocate that the rulers should use "benevolence and righteousness" and "kingliness" to convince people with virtue, and put forward that "a monarch can sail and Shu Ren can swim" and water can carry a boat or overturn it.

Ethics: The theory of evil nature emphasizes the use of rites and music to regulate people's behavior and make people do good.

Materialist thought: "Heaven has its own principles" and "control destiny and use it".

B. Taoism:

(1) Laozi-the founder of Taoism.

Philosophical Thought: The origin of the world is considered as Tao.

Political thought: put forward the idea of "governing by doing nothing" and hope to return to the ideal society of small countries and few people.

Philosophy: a simple dialectical method, which holds that everything in the world and human society are constantly moving, and the contradictory sides are interdependent and constantly transforming.

② Zhuangzi:

Philosophical thought: everything in the world is regarded as relative; I believe that if you give up everything, you can gain freedom of thought.

C. Legalist: Han Feizi-a master of legalist thought.

Political proposition: the rule of law, the monarch mainly ruled by law, controlled ministers by politics, and intimidated his subjects by absolute authority; Put forward the theory of autocratic monarchy;

Historical view: "it is impossible to repair the past unexpectedly", "things are different when the world is different" and "things are different when they are different";

Influence: the authority of the monarch was promoted to the extreme, which catered to the historical development trend of establishing a unified and autocratic country.

D. Mohist school: Mozi

Political opinions: universal love, mutual non-aggression, frugality and Shang Xian; Represents the wishes of ordinary people.

3. Influence

(1) The contention of a hundred schools of thought formed the first ideological emancipation trend in the history of China, which effectively promoted the social change and cultural development at that time and laid the foundation for the development of China's ideology and culture.

(2) Various schools refute each other, learn from each other's strong points, and form the characteristics of tolerance, tolerance and openness of China culture.

(3) Many outstanding figures summarized and sublimated the traditional culture of China, which laid the foundation for the development and prosperity of China culture. Confucius became the embodiment and symbol of China culture to some extent.

(2) Scientific and cultural achievements:

(1) Science and technology: "Sina" invented by China during the Warring States Period is the earliest guide instrument in the world;

(2) Astronomical calendar: China left the earliest records of solar eclipse, lunar eclipse, sunspot and Halley's comet in the world. During the Warring States Period, the Stone God made a table on the equator and recorded the positions of more than 800 stars. Later generations compiled the Stone Star Table, which is the oldest existing catalog in the world. Xia Zhengxiao in Xia Dynasty was improved to Li Yin in Shang Dynasty, and the chronology of cadres and branches is the longest in the world. In spring and autumn, the method of 65438+7 moistening in 2009 was adopted; During the Warring States period, there was a "moon order" in the calendar.

(3) Mathematics: Decimal counting method in Shang Dynasty, and counting method appeared in Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period.

(4) Literature: pre-Qin folk songs, The Book of Songs is China's first collection of poems, which laid the realistic foundation of China's classical literature and was regarded as a Confucian classic by later generations; During the Warring States Period, Qu Yuan created a new poetic genre-Chuci.

(5) Characters: Simple symbols carved on early pottery are considered as the origin of China characters; Oracle Bone Inscriptions in Shang Dynasty is a kind of mature writing. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Da Zhuan appeared.

(6) Painting: ancient painted pottery painting "The Stork and the Stone Axe"; The silk paintings of the Warring States Period, "Dragon and Phoenix Picture" and "Dragon Control Picture", show that China's painting art has gone from bud to maturity.

(7) Music and dance: Artists who enjoyed music and dance during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were called actors.

Main cultural areas in pre-Qin period;

1. Huaxia Cultural District: The main ethnic groups are Xia, Shang (merchants after Huaxia) and Zhou (Zhou people after Huaxia). The geographical scope generally extends to the north of Shaanxi Province, Shanxi Province and central Hebei Province (extending to the vicinity of the Great Wall after the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period), the west of Shandong Province, the north of Anhui Province and the northwest of Jiangsu Province (extending to the west coast of the Pacific Ocean after the Western Zhou Dynasty), the south of Henan Province, Baoji City in the west of Shaanxi Province and Qingyang City in the east of Gansu Province. The main cultural features are ancestor worship, widespread use of ancient Chinese characters (symbols depicted by Erlitou culture in the fourth period, Oracle Bone Inscriptions, bronze inscriptions and seal script), speaking of ancient Chinese (belonging to the original Sino-Tibetan language family of Bai Han, with a trill on the tip of the tongue and an unparalleled syllable, and similar pronunciation to that of the Dong-Tai language family of Sino-Tibetan language), and pursuing the "ceremony" after the Western Zhou Dynasty, with an advanced system. The corresponding archaeological cultures include Yangshao culture, Longshan culture, Erlitou culture, Shang culture, Zhou culture, Qi culture, Lu culture, Yan culture, Wei culture, Zheng culture and Jin (Sanjin) culture.

2. Dongyi Cultural District: The main ethnic groups are Dongyi people (including businessmen), and sometimes they include the solitary bamboo people, the Shanrong people, the Donghu people (all belonging to the eastern branch of the original Altai language family), and even the Yangyue people who later established the State of Wu and the State of Yue. The geographical scope is roughly as far north as Chaoyang City in Liaoning Province and Chifeng City in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, south to central Zhejiang Province, west to Dabie Mountain in eastern Henan Province and west of Anhui Province, and east to Bohai Sea, Yellow Sea and East China Sea (even including Korean Peninsula and Japanese archipelago). The main cultural characteristics are attaching importance to witchcraft, mysticism, strong cultural inclusiveness and openness, and universal ancient Chinese characters. After the Zhou Dynasty, Zhou Li was gradually accepted. The corresponding archaeological cultures include Longshan culture, Hongshan Culture (South), Pre-Shang culture, Wu culture, Yue culture and some Qi cultures. In two weeks, Dongyi culture has been completely integrated with Huaxia culture.

3. Beidi Cultural Area: The main ethnic groups are Beidi people (belonging to the primitive Altaic language family), usually including the ancient bamboo people, the Shanrong people and the Donghu people in the east. The geographical scope is roughly from Yan 'an City, Shaanxi Province, Yulin City, Shaanxi Province and north-central Hebei Province in the south, from the south of Lake Baikal in Siberia and the upper reaches of Yenisei River in the north, from Altai Mountain in Mongolia in the west to Sakhalin Island (sakhalin island) in Russia in the east. The main cultural characteristics are adaptation to nomadic production, preference for boys over girls, and the marriage form of inheritance marriage. Men were trained to ride and shoot since childhood, dressed as "left-handed" and did not obey the "etiquette". The corresponding archaeological cultures are Hongshan Culture, Su Shen, Zhongshan (pre-Yu) and early Xiongnu.

4. Xirong Cultural Zone: The main ethnic group is Xirong, including Qin people. In fact, it includes Tuholo people of the original Indo-European language family (Tuholo people belonging to the original Indo-European language family) and Serbs (that is, "Scots", belonging to the East Iranian branch of the Indo-European Iranian language family), as well as frontier strongmen of the original Tibeto-Burman language family of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The geographical scope is Wulanchabu City in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region in the east, Datong City in the north of Shanxi Province, Baoji City in the west of Shaanxi Province, Yichang City in Hubei Province and the west of Kent Mountain in Outer Mongolia (later extended to the west of the Yellow River), the Danube River Basin in the Hungarian grassland in Europe in the west, and Macedonia-Thrace-Black Sea-Caucasus Mountains-Caspian Sea-Khorasan-Hindu Kush Mountains-Pamir Plateau-Himalayas in the south. The main cultural feature is nomadic culture, which values less than the old, keeps long hair and does not follow the "ceremony of propriety and righteousness". The corresponding archaeological cultures in China mainly include Ba culture and Shu culture (Sanxingdui culture, Jinsha culture, etc.). ), Qijia culture, Qiang (Tibetan) culture and Tuhuoluo culture (Gaochang culture, Loulan culture, Shule culture, etc. ).

5. Nanman Cultural Zone: The main ethnic groups are Nanman, including Chu, Wu and Yue. In fact, it can be divided into three categories: Miao Man (the original Miao and Yao languages of Sino-Tibetan language family), Baiyue (the Austronesian language family, the original Dong and Thai languages of Sino-Tibetan language family), Baipu (the original South Asian language family), and sometimes all the southwest Yi people (that is, some border strongmen). The geographical scope is roughly as far north as the present Shaanxi Province, Henan Province and southern Shandong Province, east to the Pacific Ocean (possibly to Easter Island in Oceania), southeast to the Australian mainland and the North Island of New Zealand, southwest to Madagascar Island in southeast Africa, west to the Three Gorges of the Yangtze River (or the western Sichuan Plateau) and Chuxiong Prefecture in central Yunnan (or the Irrawaddy River Basin in Myanmar today). The main cultural features are broken hair, tattoos, barefoot, complex and diverse languages, advocating fire, a large number of dry fence buildings, eating habits mainly raw food, and not obeying the "etiquette". The corresponding archaeological cultures in China mainly include Hemudu culture, Qujialing culture, Chu culture, Baiyue culture (Wu culture, Yue culture), and sometimes Ba culture and Shu culture.