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Sino-Japanese Wars

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Information on Eight-Nation Alliance's war of aggression against China

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There are many reasons why the Qing army finally failed in the four-year war with the British and French Coalition forces. First of all, political governance is corrupt and reactionary, and the reactionary policy of suppressing the people's uprising at home and compromising and surrendering abroad is implemented. Secondly, the backward weapons and clumsy combat methods of the Qing army are also important reasons for the failure. During the Second Opium War, the British and French invaders were equipped with the most advanced weapons in the world at that time (such as rifles with rifle barrels for firing conical projectiles, guns with rifle barrels sailing in shallow water, steam gunboats, etc.). ), but the equipment of the Qing army is still at the level of the first Opium War (still shotguns, rifles, front-mounted guns and cold weapons for launching spherical projectiles), and the battery construction is still open-air, which can't stand the bombardment of the invading artillery. In terms of operational methods, the British and French allied forces paid attention to land-water cooperative operations, covered land landing with powerful artillery fire, and adopted skirmisher tactics in land operations, while the Qing army stood still, stuck to the rules, ignored land defense in depth, and did not understand skirmisher tactics, so it was defeated repeatedly. The Qing government knew nothing about this, which also proved the decline of the feudal system in China.

Comments: There are many reasons why the Qing army finally failed in the four-year war with the British and French allied forces. The first is political corruption and reaction, and the reactionary policy of suppressing the people's uprising at home and compromising and surrendering abroad is implemented. Secondly, the backward weapons and equipment and clumsy combat methods of the Qing army are also important reasons for the failure. During the Second Opium War, the British and French aggressor troops were equipped with the most advanced weapons in the world at that time (such as rifle-mounted rifles, rifle-mounted rifles, rifle-mounted cones, steam gunboats, guns-mounted rifles, spherical bullets, etc.). ), but the equipment of the Qing army still stays at the level of the first Opium War (still shotguns, rifles loaded with guns and cold weapons loaded with spherical projectiles), and the construction of battery is still open-air, which can not withstand the indiscriminate bombing by the invading army. In terms of operational methods, the British and French allied forces paid attention to land-water cooperative operations, covered land landing with powerful artillery fire, and adopted skirmisher tactics in land operations, while the Qing army stood still, stuck to the rules, ignored land defense in depth, and did not understand skirmisher tactics, so it was defeated repeatedly. The Qing government knew nothing about this, which also proved the decline of the feudal system in China. The failure of this war made foreign aggression spread to the coastal provinces and went deep into the interior, which deepened the semi-colonial degree of China society and brought heavy disasters to the people of China.

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Crimean War (1853 ~ 1856)

/kloc-in the 0/9th century, Russia continued to expand in the Black Sea region in an attempt to seize the Black Sea Strait, which aroused the dissatisfaction of Britain, France and other powers. 1852, Turkey handed over Bethlehem Church in Jerusalem to Catholicism, and Russia took the opportunity to request special protection rights for Orthodox Christians in Turkey, which was rejected by Turkey. 1853 in June, Russian troops occupied the Turkish protectorates Moldova and Wallachia. In June 5438+10, the Russian-Turkish War broke out, and Britain, France and Sa Ding joined the Turkish side one after another. The main battlefield of this war is Sevastopol in the Crimean Peninsula, so it is called the Crimean War.

After the war broke out, Britain and France held their ground, and the Turkish army fought alone in the Balkans, the Black Sea and the Caucasus. In the Balkans, the Turkish army defeated the Russian army by virtue of its military superiority. 1In June, 854, under the pressure of Puo, Russian troops withdrew from the occupied two principalities of Wallachia, Moldova. In the Caucasus, the Turkish army launched an attack on Saint Nicholas on1October 27th, 1853, the Turkish army was frustrated on1October, and the Russian army defeated the Turkish army in February, 165438. In the direction of the Black Sea, a naval battle broke out between the two countries. 1853165438+10. In October, the Russian Black Sea Fleet wiped out the Turkish sub-fleet in the Sinop naval battle, and Russia gained control of the Black Sea.

1854 1 October, the British and French fleets entered the Black Sea, and Russia declared war on Britain and France. In June, the British and French allied forces landed in Varna, Crimea, and the navy blocked the Russian fleet in Sevastopol. In July, Russian troops defeated the main force of the Turkish army in the Caucasus. In September, the British, French and Turkish Coalition forces landed in Crimea. On the 20th, the Allies broke through the Russian defense line and approached Sevastopol. The Russian army did everything possible to strengthen the defense line quickly. June 65438+10/October 65438+July, Allied forces began to attack Sevastopol. 1 15 years125 October, Russian troops attacked the allied rear. 1 18 On June 5, the allied forces stormed the fortress city and were repelled. On August 16, the Russian army launched a large-scale counterattack again and was repelled. The allied forces then carried out large-scale shelling. On September 8th, the allied forces captured Sevastopol, which lasted 1 1 month, and both sides suffered heavy losses.

1855, the two sides fought fiercely in Kass, Caucasus. In June, Russian troops surrounded Kass, and the siege was frustrated in September, which led to the surrender of Turkish troops in 165438+ 10. 1856 In March, Russia and France signed the Paris Peace Treaty, and the Black Sea was neutral. Russia has lost the right to own a fleet in the Black Sea, and its long-term efforts to expand the Black Sea have been wasted.

Backward serfdom Russia suffered heavy losses in this war, which triggered a domestic revolutionary struggle. In this war, the British and French allied forces used rifles and steamboats, which greatly improved the operational efficiency of Lu Haijun, and railways and telegrams also innovated the logistics command of military operations.

The influence of the Opium War

I. Changes in the social nature of China

Before the Opium War, China was an independent country politically, and the Qing government exercised complete sovereignty. Economically, it is a self-sufficient country with a dominant feudal economy. After the Opium War, fundamental changes have taken place in China society.

First, China's territorial integrity, independence and sovereignty began to be seriously undermined. The British occupation of Hong Kong Island destroyed the territorial integrity of China. Foreign warships can sail to the coastal ports of China, which damages China's territorial sovereignty; Consular jurisdiction damages China's judicial sovereignty; The agreed tariffs undermine China's tariff sovereignty and trade sovereignty. Thus, after the Opium War, China began to become a semi-independent country with incomplete territory and sovereignty.

Second, China's self-sufficient feudal economy began to collapse. After the Opium War, western capitalist countries used the privilege of aggression to dump goods and plunder raw materials in China, and gradually involved China market in the world capitalist market. After the war, British cotton textiles exported to China soared, and foreign cheap cotton and cotton yarn flooded the southeast coastal market of China, which made the family handmade cotton textile industry in the southeast coastal area of China go bankrupt gradually. Handmade cotton textile industry is the most important handicraft industry in China feudal society, and the combination of small farmers and family handmade cotton textile industry is the main form of feudal natural economy; The bankruptcy of household handmade cotton textile industry caused the separation of agriculture and textile, which was the main symbol of the disintegration of feudal natural economy for thousands of years. After the war, the export of tea and silk in China increased greatly, which stimulated the development and commercialization of domestic tea and silk production. China's tea and silk export trade is almost completely manipulated by foreign businessmen, which makes China's tea and silk production subordinate to the needs of the world market and become a raw material supplier of foreign capitalism. This is another important sign that China's feudal natural economy began to disintegrate.

To sum up, the integrity of China's territory and sovereignty began to be destroyed, and China's feudal natural economy began to disintegrate, marking the beginning of China's semi-colonial and semi-feudal society.

Second, the changes in the main social contradictions in China.

With the change of social nature in China, the principal contradiction in China society will inevitably change. Before the war, the main contradiction in China society was the contradiction between the landlord class and the peasant class. There are two major social contradictions in postwar China, namely, the contradiction between foreign capitalism and the Chinese nation, and the contradiction between feudalism and the masses of the people. Moreover, with the deepening of foreign capitalist aggression, the contradiction between foreign capitalism and the Chinese nation has become the most important contradiction among various social contradictions.

Third, the change of China's revolutionary task.

With the changes of the main social contradictions in China, China's revolutionary tasks will inevitably change. Before the war, the nature of China Revolution was the anti-feudal struggle of the peasant class. Since the Opium War, the people of China have shouldered the dual revolutionary task of opposing foreign capitalist aggression and domestic feudal rule. Since then, China has entered the period of the old democratic revolution. In a word, the Opium War was the starting point for China to be enslaved by foreign capitalism, which transformed China from a feudal society into a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society and marked the beginning of modern China history.