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Doctors in China are different from those in the West. In the eyes of some people in China, a doctor is the end of academic life, while in western countries, a doctor is only the beginning of academic research. The word doctor existed in ancient China. In the Tang Dynasty, Han Yu once worked as "Dr. Guo Zi". This is obviously different from today's doctors. The current doctoral system was established after undergraduate and master's degrees, and it is an out-and-out foreign product. Here, some people will comment: since it originated in the west, why is it different from the west? This opinion is reasonable. However, China ancient Yan Zi said: "Orange was born in Huainan, which is orange; Being born in Huaibei is embarrassing. " With the change of soil and climate conditions, its species will also change. In China, besides soil and climate conditions, there are also ideological conditions. It is precisely because of this state of mind that western medicine has gone bad in China. In the history of all countries in the world, China has the longest feudal period. In the feudal society of more than 2,000 years, intellectuals in China had only one way to make progress, and that was the imperial examination system. This is really a horde, squeezing across the wooden bridge. Since taking the scholar exam, some people have gone through 81 difficulties, but they may not be able to promote the scholar from scholar, scholar from scholar and scholar from scholar to palace examination scholar. Only the luckiest people can enter imperial academy, and often in their twilight years, and their lives are voluntarily satisfied. A scholar's life can come to an end.
Since the abolition of the imperial examination in the late Qing Dynasty, the names of scholar, juren and scholar have been lost, but their ideological images still exist. First, the implementation of the western education system has led to the emergence of primary schools, middle schools, universities, research institutes and so on. So someone came to make a comparison between the old and the new: graduating from high school equals a scholar; Graduation from university is equal to being a juror, graduation from graduate school is equal to being a scholar, and graduation from Hanlin is equal to being an academician. Both of them imply the shadow of the crown of "doctor". It is logical, seamless, old and new, and goes hand in hand. So the comparer feels at ease, and his chest is undoubtedly stagnant. If I make an analogy, I can only compare it with today's vegetarian diet, which must be in the shape of chicken, fish and duck. The psychological state behind it is really intriguing. Have you noticed that doctoral fever has become quite common in today's universities? Some associate professors and even some professors are rushing to apply for in-service doctoral students. Are there any examples of professors who used to be their own students and now become doctoral supervisors applying for doctoral degrees? I dare not talk nonsense. Anyway, some professors who are a generation later than themselves have applied for doctoral supervision. I even heard that a professor applied for a postdoctoral position and was approved as a doctoral supervisor. Wan has no reason to be a doctoral student himself. I wonder how the professor will deal with this problem.
I used to take a fancy to the notes of a generation, saying that there was a man in the Qing Dynasty whose son was admitted to a university and became an examiner. Therefore, he could no longer take the Jinshi exam and cursed his son: "This beast made me wear a fake black hat!" " "Will this professor also complain:" Will I be allowed to work as a fake doctoral tutor? "The situation in front of China is really hard for foreigners. In other words, those who are like "old couples" are not lost at first. Now it suddenly dawned on me once that in China's present society, feudal thoughts are still very strong. In many people's subconscious, the shadows of Jinshi and Hanlin are faintly flashing behind the doctors from the west.
References:
Dr. Ji Xianlin Lun
Pick? The deliberation system is an important institutional guarantee for the unification of Qin State. The doctor system is a manifestation of its further institutionalization and standardization, an institutional innovation that absorbs the political essence of the six countries into the administrative system, an attempt of a new ruling mode and a major turning point in the political operation mode after reunification. It embodies Qin Shihuang's thought of "ruling the country by culture" and is an important measure of cultural unity. However, due to the change of political situation, Qin Shihuang had to return to a single legalist administrative decision-making model, which led to the rapid demise of Qin State.
Keywords: Political Rise and Fall Doctoral System in Qin Dynasty
one
Doctor system is a pioneering work and an important part of the political system in Qin Dynasty. It came into being to meet the actual political needs of the Qin Dynasty, and it continued to develop and evolve, which had a far-reaching impact on the politics of the Qin Dynasty and later generations [1]. According to "Han Shu Guan Bai Gong Qing Biao", "Doctor, Qin Guan." The palm connects the past and the present, and there are 600 stones and dozens of sticks. The word "doctor" appeared in the Warring States period, just a general term for scholars. But by the end of the Warring States period, in order to adapt to the increasing social situation of the United War, countries had to pay tribute to the virtuous corporal to ensure the safety of his rule. In this case, countries such as Qi and Wei set up doctoral officers, and let knowledgeable scholars serve as staff officers and consultants, making sure that their main task is to participate in political discussions and assist in decision-making. Therefore, The Continued Record of Hanshu said, "Doctor, I am responsible for teaching my disciples, and I have doubts about my country. I am responsible for asking the right questions. "The doctor system in the Qin Dynasty inherited the tradition of the Warring States, and its main function was to participate in the discussion meeting of national policies. Mr. Wang Jing' an pointed out earlier: "Dr. Qin also talks about ritual politics, which is the same as the Han system." [2] "Hanshu" said "Zhang Tong ancient and modern", that's what it means. ?
Dr. Qin's deliberation system is closely related to his own unique cultural form and political tradition. Since the Central Plains, the ancestors of Qin lived in Xirong, protecting Xihuang [3], and lived side by side with the cities in the western regions. During this period, through the form of war and marriage, the two cultures continued to blend, and Qin culture was inevitably contaminated with the characteristics of Xirong culture. In 770 BC, Pingdong moved to the east, and "Qin Xianggong was a vassal, giving it the land of the west" [4], and the military conflict between Qin and Zhu Rong entered a more intense stage. By the time Mu Gong "benefited the country for 12 years, explored thousands of miles, and then monopolized Xirong" [5], he won an all-round victory over Xirong War. However, this move still does not shake off the prejudice of eastern countries that Emperor Rong of Qin Wei is the same as Emperor Rong of Qin and that "Qin and Emperor Rong are vulgar" and "I don't know etiquette and morality" [6]. So that "it is easy for my brother to meet it" [7]. This shows the depth of Qin's Hua Rong. Most of Zhurong, who had frequent contact with Qin, was still in the transition stage from nomadic life to settled farming and animal husbandry life [8]. This cultural factor penetrated into the cultural structure of Qin, which inevitably affected the establishment of Qin's ruling mode. The power structure and system of early countries were usually transformed from clan organs, so there were obviously remnants of primitive democracy. The Xirong cultural factor in Qin culture will undoubtedly make it continue smoothly. As far as the political system of Qin State is concerned, the most direct embodiment is the deliberative system, that is, the procedure of dealing with political affairs is generally to let ministers participate in discussions before making decisions. This political feature reflects the simplicity and initiative of the Qin system. Another source of Qin's tradition of deliberation is the inheritance of right. The State of Qin used war to drive away Zhu Rong and occupied the land. In the 16th year of Wengong (the first 750 years), it was "taken over by Vic Zhou" [9]. Since then, Qin culture has launched a "Zhou Hua" movement. "Qin people inherited Zhou culture from the official system, writing system and music system to agriculture and handicrafts, while others directly followed the Zhou system" [10]. The Zhou system also has a system similar to Tingyi, which contains the method of consulting the public. Among them, "Village Doctors" said that "village doctors are handsome in their hometown, so they go to the DPRK"; Xiao Sikou asked Xiao Sikou to "avoid the order and then ask". It can be seen that in Zhou's political operation, he is used to internal discussions in advance about major political decisions. Of course, this system can't be abandoned by Qin. In fact, at the end of the Warring States period, Qin's position in political life was incomparable to that of other vassal States, and that was all. The system of Qin promoted the development of Qin, and its enlightened and effective decision-making mechanism made Qin's policy of governing the country reasonable and feasible, and finally gained the greatest political benefits. In the history of Qin State, such examples are common, such as the argument between Shang Yang and Gan Long and Du Zhi before Shang Yang's political reform; The disputes between Zhang Yi and Sima Cuo in Hui Wang period, such as attacking Shu and Chao, had a great influence on the political situation of Qin. It can be said that the deliberation system is an important institutional guarantee for the reunification of Qin. After the reunification, it has attracted more attention as an effective form of governance. The doctor system is the embodiment of the further institutionalization and standardization of the proceedings. At the same time, we can also see that after the establishment of the unified Qin Empire, the political situation took a turning point.
The Qin Dynasty's unification of China was a pioneering work in history. Since Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties, including the Three Dynasties, there has never been such a huge unified dynasty, and the political structure, social structure and economic structure have never been so complicated. In this way, a realistic problem is placed in front of this unprecedented empire, that is, how to govern and rule. In fact, the ruling class of Qin has long recognized this. Lv Buwei's Lv Chunqiu is the construction of the future imperial rule mode. Lv Buwei's stepping down seems to imply his political ideas, but this is not in line with historical reality. In the final stage of the six-nation war, Qin Shihuang actually partially practiced Lu Chunqiu's political thought. Qin killed, migrated and exiled the nobles of the six countries and severely suppressed them; And collect and destroy the weapons of the six countries, dismantle blockades and fortresses that hinder the traffic of all countries, set up counties and counties, and govern the six countries in a unified way. But culturally, the attitude is particularly tolerant. The most outstanding performance of Qin Shihuang's "Learning Six Kingdoms Etiquette" [1 1] is the establishment and expansion of the doctoral system. Judging from the existing doctors, their native place is in Kanto [12]. From this perspective, the doctor is the political representative of the six eastern countries. Qin Shihuang absorbed scholars from all over the world to participate in the government, set up doctoral officers and let them participate in state affairs, thus forming a political group assisted by the Senate and creating a doctoral deliberation system. In fact, this is an adaptation and compromise to the six eastern countries, and it is also a solution to the contradictions among the six countries. Consolidating the new unified situation is the ruling skill of Qin Shihuang. According to the records of the Western Han Conference, doctors attended the conference, including abolishing legislation, discussing ancestral temples, discussing rural sacrifices, feudalism, discussing merits and demerits, discussing civil affairs, discussing legal system, discussing crimes and punishments, and discussing ministers. Doctors' participation in these major political decisions reflects the importance attached by the ruling class to doctors and the importance of doctors' political status.
Regarding the origin of doctors' organizations, Mr. Ma Yuancai thinks: "Generally speaking, Mr. Xia Ji, the master of Qi State, is the source of the doctor system in Qin Dynasty ... The number of doctors in Qin Dynasty is seventy, and the number of doctors in Qin Dynasty is also seventy." [13] Gong Xue, Xia Ji, the State of Qi, was an academic center at the end of the Warring States Period, where academic representatives from various countries and factions gathered. It is entirely possible for Qin Shihuang to upgrade this semi-official institution to a member of the Qin administrative system and serve as a consultant at any time to realize his ruling intention. On the surface, doctors are subordinate to Fengchang, but unlike other subordinate officials, Fengchang is not very close to doctors. They are relatively independent. One of the most qualified is the servant shooter, who holds several doctors. "They are regular officials, who follow the officials and report directly to the emperor" [14]. It can be found that doctors still maintain the original organizational structure in Gong Xue, which provides strong evidence for the important position of doctors in the Qin administrative system.
Therefore, the doctor system is an attempt of the new ruling mode after Qin Shihuang unified China. He tried to absorb the political essence of the six eastern countries into the administrative system to eliminate the resistance of the East. At the same time, relying on these people who are familiar with the social reality of the six eastern countries, we will formulate policies and measures that meet the requirements of governance and strengthen administrative control over the six regions. The implementation of this measure undoubtedly shows the wise attitude of Qin Shihuang.
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The doctor system marks a major turning point in the political operation mode after Qin's reunification, and it is a revision of the previous single legalist administrative decision-making mode to adapt to the emergence of the unified situation.
First of all, doctors are a group of scholars, which is an attempt to recruit scholars into political institutions in the Qin Dynasty under the new situation. Since Shang Yang's political reform, the State of Qin has implemented the military knighthood system. "Those who have made meritorious deeds show honor, and those who have done nothing have nothing to lose" [15]. In the selection of officials, it is mainly full-time military service. Every time a city is captured, it is usually the leader who leads the troops and concurrently serves as the local governor. This is the case with the chief Teng in Yunmeng Qin bamboo slips. This system was formed under the condition that Qin was in a war environment for a long time. The history of Qin State can be said to be a history of frequent wars with six countries in Zhu Rong. From the founding of the People's Republic of China to reunification, Qin has been in a state of war, and the system of military titles is the product of Qin's long-term wartime system. However, an excellent military commander is not necessarily an excellent administrative manager. Excellent administrators should have extensive knowledge and rich experience, and the intellectual characteristics of doctors themselves just meet this requirement. The incorporation of Dr. Qin into the organs of political power changed the military structure of the ruling class in the past, reflected the importance attached to civilian politics after the reunification of China by force, enriched and expanded the ruling foundation of the Qin Empire, and embodied the idea of "ruling the country by culture" in Qin Shihuang's new ruling policy. However, there is no historical data to show that Dr. Qin independently served as the director of a certain department, and Dr. Qin was only a junior official in the court. However, Dr. Qin's position is highly respected. "He is an official in the imperial court and is called Mr. Shi" [16]. There is a note in the Book of Jin Guan Bai Biao: "The title of doctor is humble. Because it inherits the teachings of predecessors, it is different, so it is crowned as a doctor." [17] This is probably the beginning of the system reform, and it is still impossible to completely abandon the military title system. Doctors have no military merit and cannot receive high ranks, but their political status is very high, which shows that the transitional system is imperfect. Similarly, the embarrassing relationship between doctors and their officials in charge also reflects this situation truthfully.
The doctor system was also Qin Shihuang's efforts to get rid of the image of regional political power. Since the demise of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, the ceremony has collapsed and the ministers have carried on the life of the country. The vassal States have long been independent, and each has formed its own regional power. Qin lived in the west for a long time and was regarded as an alien by the six eastern countries. In fact, Qin is not as narrow as imagined by the six eastern countries, and its culture has the characteristics of openness, which makes the ruling class of Qin have a lofty vision and a broad mind. Qin paid attention to the East for many times, intervened in the affairs of the six countries, and served as a guest minister, making the talents of the six countries in the East for their own use, which showed that Qin had a vision of overall planning and did not stick to regional political interests. The unification of the Qin dynasty, "the county is in the sea, and the laws and regulations are unified" [18]. It is the practice of Qin Shihuang's unified political view. From then on, "within Liuhe, the land of the emperor. It involves quicksand in the west and households in the north in the south. The East China Sea is in the east and summer is in the north. Where there are people, there are no ministers "[19]. This became the basis and basis of Qin Shihuang's plan to unify the whole country. Doctoral doctors come from six eastern countries respectively, reflecting different regional political interests. Incorporating them into Qin's political institutions, like "a constant weight, a car on the same track, a book with the same word" [20], is a symbol of the compatibility of various subcultures under the main body of Qin culture. Qin Shihuang's intention is to make the political forces in various regions go through the process of running-in and extinction, and to establish the main political interest core centered on Qin Wei. In this way, it is inevitable to face a new problem, that is, the unity of culture.
Doctors themselves are carriers of multiculturalism, and the essence of the establishment of the doctor system is that Qin Shihuang seeks the transformation mechanism of ideological and cultural forms corresponding to the unified situation. The unity of military and system is only the unity of politics, and the firmness of politics depends on whether the culture it is rooted in is thick or not. Therefore, the deep unity should be the unity of culture. The Book of Rites is summarized as "cars are on the same track, books are on the same track, and walks on the same track", which involves the organizational composition of three unified nations: economic life, language and psychological quality. From this perspective, Qin Shihuang consciously or unconsciously complied with the inevitable trend of historical development. While retaining the mainstream culture of the Qin Dynasty, he adopted a tolerant attitude towards the cultures of the six eastern countries, absorbed different cultures from different countries and sought cultural unity. The unified new Qin culture is no longer confined to a corner of Qin culture, but is based on the broad foundation of the unification of the seven countries. PhDs from different cultural backgrounds are absorbed into administrative institutions, which provides an intuitive and convenient form for unifying culture. According to the twelve doctors who can be tested in the Qin Dynasty, "Chun, Fu Sheng, Shu, Li Ke and Quan Gong are all Confucianism, and they are celebrities and immortals, while the other four are ignorant schools" [2 1]. However, in the Doctoral System of the Hundred Schools Separated in Qin Dynasty [22], among the 70 doctors, there must be representatives of law, yin and yang, vertical and horizontal, agriculture and military. Therefore, the unified Qin culture is compatible with hundred schools of thought's academic culture. The way of being an official in Yunmeng Qin bamboo slips clearly shows the absorption of Confucianism by Qin's political thought. Doctoral system is only a symbol of cultural unity, and its establishment is a systematic synthesis of various schools of culture and brings it into the political track. The mainstream culture was protected by unification and centralization, while the heterogeneous culture was inevitably suppressed, which laid the groundwork for the political transition in the Qin Dynasty.
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Due to the adjustment of the guiding ideology of the Qin Dynasty, hundreds of cultures were compatible in the process of cultural unification, which made the status of various cultures rise in the political life of the Qin Dynasty. Therefore, the role of legalist culture dominated by the Qin Dynasty in political decision-making was weakened to some extent, which caused dissatisfaction among legalist representatives. As the legalist school gained a dominant position after Shang Yang's political reform, it gradually penetrated into the value level of Qin culture, which determined people's cultural mentality and formed a solid social foundation of the legalist school, and all heresies of the legalist school's thought were bound to be fiercely countered. After the reunification of Qin Dynasty, Lisi, an important representative of Legalism, became an opposition who fiercely criticized the current policy. In the 26th year of Qin Shihuang (22 1 year), Prime Minister Wang Wan and others proposed to enfeoffment Jinshi as a vassal, which was opposed by Tingwei Lisi. He thought that "the hero of a scholar is rewarded with public tax and easy to control" [23] was approved by the first emperor. In fact, Reese's opinion is also objective and correct, which is not enough to show his selfishness. However, in the thirty-third year of Qin Shihuang (2 13 BC), a banquet was held in Xianyang Palace, and Dr. Chunyuyue advocated that "the past should not be forgotten", which was immediately accused by Li Si, who has been promoted to prime minister, saying that cultural representatives of various factions "are duplicitous when they enter, gossip when they leave, praise the name of the Lord, take different things and lead a group to slander" [24], which will certainly endanger. Just at this time, the political situation of the Qin Dynasty was reversed. In the 29th year of Qin Shihuang (2 19 BC), Qin Shihuang was attacked twice in Bolangsha, Wu Yang and Lanchi Palace, Xianyang. This shows that the resistance movement of the six countries has not disappeared, which can not but cause Qin Shihuang to reflect on the current policy.
Because of Qin Shihuang's tolerant policy towards the cultures of the six countries, it has maintained a strong strength. Although the ruling class of the Qin Dynasty violently eradicated the survival foundation of the six eastern countries politically and economically, it did not and could not sever their cultural ties. For hundreds of years, people all over the world have lived in a certain area and have certain lives and customs. They developed deep and simple feelings for their kingdom. This sense of * * * is maintained by * * *' s lifestyle, customs and psychological feelings, thus forming a cohesive force and centripetal force, which constitutes the original motive force of anti-Qin sentiment and is firmly combined with cultures of various countries. As the cultural carrier of all countries, doctors must bear this cultural factor. As Reese said, "Everyone is good at his private school, which is based on something that is not on it ... Private school has nothing to do with teaching, and people learn about it by themselves" [25]. The active situation of doctors from all walks of life aroused the suspicion of the Qin ruling class.
In addition, the establishment of the doctor system in the Qin administrative management system induced a series of contradictions and conflicts, mainly manifested in the conflict between doctors and hundreds of cultures, especially Confucianism and Legalism, the conflict between military bureaucrats and doctors and civilian officials, and the conflict between Qin State and the six eastern countries themselves. Therefore, doctors are in an isolated and hostile position inside and outside the Qin Dynasty. Moreover, these contradictions caused by the doctor system have destroyed the tradition of respecting the monarch and restraining the minister in the political culture of Legalism, and it is absolutely impossible for the monarch and the minister to have different meanings. In addition, Chun strongly advocated "taking history as a mirror" and "enfeoffment system", which was a complete denial of Qin political tradition. In the Qin system, all the royal family or people with military achievements can get titles, land, officials and other rewards. Without a bag. "Qin and the world, build an emperor, set up an official position" [26], which has never been learned since ancient times. Therefore, the pure proposition touched Qin Shihuang's concern about the separatist regime in the Warring States period, which triggered his antipathy to the thought and tendency of enfeoffment system. He may think that the doctors advocated the enfeoffment of the ancient times in order to seek the re-establishment of the six countries. This is absolutely not allowed by him. In this case, Reese's remarks immediately won his approval. He tried to dispel the "quasi-national consciousness" of the people in the annexed kingdom by burning books, so as to vigorously promote the process of cultural unification and safeguard national unity and the rule of the Qin Dynasty.
The "book burning" incident marked another turning point in Qin politics, and the administrative decision-making system returned to a single legalist cultural model.
The political turn of the Qin Dynasty also had external reasons. From the thirty-second year of Qin Shihuang (2 16 BC), the state of Qin launched a war against Xiongnu and South Vietnam. During the Warring States period, legalist culture was the only thing in Qin State, and the important reason was the need of Qin State's uninterrupted war with foreign countries. This time, due to the outbreak of war, the Qin Dynasty partially restored the wartime system, thus creating a good external environment for the return of the dominant position of Legalist culture. Since then, "prime ministers and ministers have their own duties and rely on them", but "doctors specialize in it and should not use it" [27]. The operation and function of the doctor system are greatly limited. Therefore, re-establishing a single legalist administrative decision-making model is the fundamental reason for inhibiting the function of the doctoral system. Throughout the two political transformations in the Qin Dynasty, the fate of legalist culture is the main line. In the early days of Qin Shihuang's rule, the exclusive position of legalist culture was weakened by trying new ruling policies; The restoration of its status marked the bankruptcy of Qin Shihuang's new ruling policy. The deep-seated reason why the new ruling policy was abandoned was that Qin was separated from the six eastern countries for too long and could not establish long-term mutual trust. Among them, the cohesion and centripetal force of quasi-state, an independent anti-Qin emotional entity formed in the history of the six eastern countries, played an inestimable catalytic role. The ruling mode of the single legalist political culture in Qin State could not adapt to the new political situation after reunification, which was one of the reasons for the rapid demise of the Qin Dynasty.
Injection and release
[1] This paper only discusses the relationship between the doctor system and the politics of the Qin Dynasty. For the establishment and evolution of the doctor system, please refer to Zhang Handong: On the Doctor System in Qin and Han Dynasties: Official System in Qin and Han Dynasties, edited by An and Xiong Tieji, Qilu Bookstore, 1984.
[2] Wang Guowei: Examination of Dr. Lin, Zhonghua Book Company, 1959 edition.
[3] Historical Records Qin Benji.
[4] Historical Records Qin Benji.
[5] Historical Records Qin Benji.
[6] "Warring States Policy Wei Ce San".
[7] Historical Records Qin Benji.
[8] Ma Changshou: "The Northern Emperor and Xiongnu", Joint Publishing, 1962 edition, the first 14 page.
[9] Historical Records Qin Benji.
[10] Huang: An Overview of Qin Culture, Collection of Essays on Qin Culture, Northwest University Press, 1993, p. 74.
[1 1] Records of the Book of Rites.
[12]: Zhang Handong: On the Doctor System in Qin and Han Dynasties, edited by An and Xiong Tieji: Historical Draft of the Official System in Qin and Han Dynasties, Qilu Bookstore, 1984, pp. 476-477.
[13] Ma: Collection of Qin History, Zhonghua Book Company, 1982 edition, p. 893.
[14] Zhang Handong's previous article on page 427.
[15] Historical Records Biography of Shang Jun.
[16] Article 46 "Official" of "Literary and Art Congregation".
[17] Notes to the Book of the Later Han Dynasty, Records of Yu Fu.
[18] Historical Records of Qin Shihuang.
[19] Historical Records of Qin Shihuang.
[20] Historical Records of Qin Shihuang.
[2 1][ Zhang Handong's last article on page 4 1 1.
[22] Wang Guowei: "Dr. Guan Kaolin", Zhonghua Book Company, 1959 edition.
[23] Historical Records of Qin Shihuang.
[24] Historical Records of Qin Shihuang.
[25] Historical Records of Qin Shihuang.
[26] "Han Guan Bai Gong Qing Table".
[27] Historical Records of Qin Shihuang.