1990, the United States has 950,000 scientific and technical personnel specializing in research and development, ranking first in the world. That year, there were 39 researchers per 10,000 population and 76 researchers per 10,000 labor force in the United States. Compared with 1980, the total number of scientific researchers in China has increased by 46%.
Distribution of scientific and technical personnel
1990, 7% of American researchers worked in federal government agencies, 76% in industrial enterprises, 14% in universities and 3% in other non-profit organizations. Compared with 1980, the proportion of scientific researchers in various departments in China has only increased by 4 percentage points, government agencies have decreased by 2 percentage points, and universities and other non-profit organizations have decreased by 1 percentage point.
Training of scientific and technical personnel
American scientific and technological personnel are mainly trained by universities. 1992, there were 238 major universities in the United States, among which the top 35 universities trained doctors, accounting for 43.45% of the total number of doctors awarded in the United States that year. 1992 The top universities that trained doctors 10 are: University of California at Berkeley, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, University of Wisconsin at Madison, University of Michigan at ann arbor, University of Texas at Austin, Ohio State University, Minnesota Twin Cities University, UCLA, Stanford University and Pennsylvania State University. The number of doctorates awarded by each school ranges from 560 to 796. This 10 university, except Stanford, is a state university.
1991-1992 school year, the United States awarded 9 doctorates in 40 calendar years, including 22,689 doctorates in science and engineering, medicine and agriculture, accounting for 55.8%; There are 352,838 masters, including 97,575 masters in science and engineering, medicine and agriculture, accounting for 27.7%; In addition, 27,965 advanced professional degrees in various medical sciences have been awarded. The disciplines with the largest number of doctoral degrees in science and engineering, medicine and agriculture this academic year are: 5499 (excluding architecture, etc. ), physical science (including physics, chemistry, astronomy, etc.) 439 1. ), life science 4243, medicine and health 16 1, agriculture and natural resources 1265438. The most awarded master's degrees are: engineering 25977, medical students 23065, computer and information science (excluding communication, etc. ) 9530, physical science 5374, life science 4785.
1992 The median age of those who have obtained doctoral degrees in American universities is 30.7 years old in physical science, 32.7 years old in life science and 3 1.5 years old in engineering; The median years from bachelor's degree to doctor's degree are 8. 1 year, 9.4 years and 8.7 years respectively. The median years of registered graduate students are 6.5 years, 6.7 years and 6.2 years respectively; The proportion of doctoral degree and undergraduate degree is 68.4%, 53.5% and 865,438+0.8% respectively. The proportion of women is'19.7%, 39.3% and 9.3% respectively; The proportion of American citizens is 54.2%, 65.7% and 38.7% respectively. Judging from the employment intention after graduation, the first choice for engineering doctors is industry and commerce, followed by schools; The first choice for doctors of life sciences is school, followed by industry and commerce; People who hold these two choices in physical science are roughly equal. About 56% of doctors are mainly engaged in research and development after employment.
Through the National Science Foundation, the U.S. government supports more than 3,000 doctoral students, 1000 master students and 10000 major young researchers every year. Starting from 1984, the National Science Foundation of the United States has also set up the "Presidential Youth Science and Technology Award" to reward outstanding young researchers, with 200 awards each year, and each winner can get a bonus of 6,543,800 US dollars within five years. These measures have played a positive role in cultivating outstanding scientific and technological talents in the United States.
Science and technology fund
1993, the total expenditure on scientific research in the United States reached160.8 billion US dollars, exceeding the sum of Japan, Germany, France and Britain. At present, the proportion of scientific research funds in the gross national product in the United States is about 2.8%. In the past 10 years, the growth rate of scientific research funds in the United States (in constant dollars) was about 5%, exceeding the growth rate of gross national product.
Sources of science and technology funds
Of the US 1993 scientific research funds, 43% comes from the federal government, 5 1% comes from industrial enterprises and 6% comes from other sources. Compared with 1983, industrial enterprises provided 3% more research funds, others provided 2% more, and the federal government reduced 5%. But the federal government is still one of the most important sources of science and technology funds in the United States. Even after deducting the defense research expenditure, the government still bears 25% of the national research expenditure, which is much higher than that of Japan and Germany. In particular, basic research funds are mainly provided by the federal government in the United States.
33% of the research funds of American industrial enterprises come from the federal government (enjoying nearly half of the federal research funds); 62% of the funds of non-profit research institutions come from the federal government, 14% from industrial enterprises, and the remaining 34% from themselves; As far as colleges and universities are concerned, excluding the federally funded R&D centers located in colleges and universities, the total scientific research funds in 1993 amounted to $20.6 billion, of which the federal government provided 55.5% (that is, colleges and universities used 1.6% of the total federal research funds in that year), the state government provided 7.9%, industrial and commercial enterprises provided 7.3%, and other institutions and individuals provided 9. 7%, provided by itself 19.6%. Compared with 1983, American universities have relatively less research funds from the federal government, but more research funds from state governments, industrial enterprises, all walks of life and themselves. 10 In 1992,10 institutions of higher learning were Johns Hopkins University (534 million) and Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2. 500 million), Stanford University (247 million), University of Washington (245 million), University of Michigan (265.438+0 billion), University of California, Los Angeles (203 million), University of California, San Diego (202 million), University of California, San Francisco (65.438+95 million), University of Wisconsin, Madison (203 million). The above-mentioned schools account for 22.72% of the total scientific research funds of federal institutions of higher learning. According to the statistics of the top 20 universities in the United States, 665,438+0% of their research funding comes from the federal government, accounting for 82% of the total federal funding for them.
Allocation of science and technology funds
In the United States, 1 1% is used by federal research institutions, 72% by industrial enterprises, 13% by universities and 4% by other non-profit organizations. Compared with 1983 in 1983, universities and other non-profit organizations each increased by 1 percentage point, while federal government agencies and enterprises each decreased by l percentage point.
The distribution of R&D funds in the United States is divided into three stages, with basic research accounting for 16%, applied research accounting for 25% and development research accounting for 59%. Compared with 1993,1993 has improved basic research by 3 percentage points, applied research by 2 percentage points and development research by 5 percentage points. As far as departments are concerned, the allocation of funds in the three stages accounts for about 20%, 28% and 52% respectively in government scientific research institutions; In industrial enterprises, they are 5%, 20% and 75% respectively; In institutions of higher learning, they are 66%, 26% and 8% respectively; In other non-profit organizations, it is 37%, 29% and 34% respectively. It is worth noting that colleges and universities undertake more than half of the basic research tasks in China; Industrial enterprises are not only the main body of development and applied research, but also the main force of basic research, ranking second only to universities.
1993 according to disciplines, 40.64% of the federal government's basic research and applied research funds are used for life sciences (including biological sciences, medicine, agricultural sciences, environmental biology, etc.). ) and 2 1.27% are engineering (including metallurgy, materials, chemical engineering, machinery, civil engineering, aviation and other disciplines). 17. 17% is used in physical sciences (including physics, chemistry, astronomy, etc. ), environmental science (including geology, atmosphere, oceanography, etc.) 8.97%. ), computer science and mathematics 4.35%, other sciences (including psychological science, etc.) 7.60%. 52.83% of the federal government's research funds for universities are used for life science, 9.86% for physical science, 5.96% for environmental science, 5.36% for engineering science, 2.3 1% for computer science and mathematics, and 23.67% for other sciences (including national defense research).
The federal research budget of 65,438+0,996 proposed by the US government is only 2.4% higher than that of 65,438+0,995, but the funds allocated by various research and departments show different trends, and basic research increases by 3. 2% of the funds, applied research increased by less than L%, and development research decreased by nearly 1%. The National Science Foundation mainly supports scientific research in universities. 1996, the research budget of the National Institute of Health and Wellness was11800 million dollars. For example,% is also used to support biomedical research in institutions such as colleges and universities.
Scientific research management system
The highest decision-making power of the federal government in the field of science and technology lies with the president. President Clinton set up a ministerial-level National Science and Technology Committee headed by himself in the Cabinet to strengthen the leadership of scientific and technological work. The President's Office has the President's Science and Technology Advisory Council and the Science and Technology Policy Office to provide suggestions for the President to handle related science and technology affairs. The president's chief science and technology adviser is equivalent to the assistant to the president. He is a full-time member of the White House, director of the President's Council of Science and Technology Advisers and director of the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy. He reports directly to the President and participates in the highest decisions of the National Economic Conference and the National Security Conference. Federal agencies such as the National Science Foundation of the United States also participate in the formulation of national science and technology policies and plans.
In addition to the above-mentioned institutions, there are many unofficial institutions that play an important advisory role in the process of formulating and implementing science and technology policies. These include: National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, National Academy of Medical Sciences, American Association for the Advancement of Science, and various science and technology associations; Association of american universities, the national association of state universities and land-grant colleges, and some major universities, high-tech companies and organizations, such as electronics industry association, national defense industry association, chemical manufacturers association, etc. They provide a wide range of scientific and technological consulting services to the president and the federal government through various channels. The National Academy of Sciences has dual functions, both as an academic honorary institution and as a scientific advisory institution of the federal government. At present, there are about 1500 academicians and 23 professional departments. The National Research Council is its leading body; It consists of 17 directors, nominated and appointed by the president. The National Academy of Engineering (more than 65,438 academicians +0.500) and the National Academy of Medical Sciences (more than 700 academicians) are similar in nature to the National Academy of Sciences.
The role of the US Congress in the development of national science and technology is also very important. The government's draft science and technology legislation, the establishment of important science and technology institutions, the appointment of important science and technology officials and the science and technology budget all need to be reviewed and approved by the Senate and the House of Representatives. At present, the House of Representatives has a committee on science, space and technology, while the Senate has no committee on commerce, science and transportation.
System of scientific research institutions
R&D in the United States is carried out independently in four major research institutions: federal government laboratories, private industrial companies, universities and other non-profit organizations. By studying policies such as contracts and purchase contracts, the federal government can influence scientific research institutions outside the government to a certain extent, so that the national scientific and technological work becomes a whole. In addition to the federal government, since the 1980s, state governments have begun to care about and participate in the management of their major scientific and technological projects in order to develop their own economies, but generally do not directly set up research institutions.
Federal government research institute
The United States federal government has 13 departments and more than 50 independent functional departments, of which about 17 departments or independent functional departments are closely related to science and technology. Of these 17 departments, 6 are the most closely related. The total scientific research budget of US federal government 1996 is 72 billion US dollars, of which the Ministry of National Defense accounts for 54%, the Ministry of Health and Public Affairs accounts for 14%, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration accounts for 12%, the Department of Energy accounts for 10%, the National Science Foundation accounts for 3% and the Ministry of Agriculture accounts for 2%. Together, the above six departments accounted for 95% of the federal government's science and technology budget.
According to incomplete statistics, there are more than 750 research units affiliated to various departments of the federal government. Among them, 108 research and experimental institutions have been set up by the army, navy and air force under the Ministry of National Defense, 20 research institutes or research centers have been set up by the National Institute of Health under the Ministry of Health and Public Security, 9 research centers have been set up by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and 146 domestic and foreign experimental research institutions have been set up by the Ministry of Agriculture. The Ministry of Commerce has set up the National Bureau of Standards, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Patent and Trademark Office, the National Technical Information Service Center and the National Communications and Information Administration.
There is an institution called "federally funded research and development center" in the laboratory of the federal government. All these institutions are funded by relevant departments of the federal government, such as the Ministry of Energy (which has 53 such institutions), the Ministry of National Defense, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the National Science Foundation. The personnel of these research institutions are all government employees. However, the management of these institutions is contracted by the government to universities, private industrial enterprises or non-profit organizations. These research institutions are generally large-scale and well-funded, mainly engaged in high-risk and long-term research and development.
In fact, only one-third of the federal government's research funds are allocated to its own research units (more than one-fourth of which are allocated to federally funded research and development centers), and the other two-thirds are allocated to research units outside the government in different forms, mainly in the form of research contracts and research grants. Take 1993 as an example. The federal government spent $69.8 billion on scientific research in that year, of which 23.86% was spent by federal internal institutions. If all federally funded R&D centers (9.4 1%) were added, it would be 33.27%. The expenditure of industrial enterprises is 44.73%, and if the federally funded R&D center managed by industrial enterprises (3.07%) is added, it is 47.8%; University expenditure 16.86%, if the federally funded R&D center managed by universities (5.3 1%) is added, it will be 22.17%; Other non-profit organizations spend 4.24%, and if the federally funded R&D center managed by non-profit organizations (l.03%%) is added, it is 5.27%; In addition, state and local governments spend 0.4 1%, and foreign expenditures are 0.48%.
According to incomplete statistics, American private industrial enterprises currently have about 20,000 laboratories of different sizes. Their R&D activities can be roughly divided into two categories: the first category is the research commissioned by the federal government through research contracts or procurement contracts. This kind of research and development work accounts for about one third of the research and development of industrial enterprises, mainly concentrated in a few industrial fields, and concentrated in large companies. The second category is the research of industrial enterprises' own investment, which covers a wide range, mainly focusing on chemical industry, medicine, electronics, industrial instruments, scientific instruments and other fields. Generally speaking, the R&D activities of American industrial enterprises are concentrated in high-tech industries. For example, in the past few years, the average R&D expenditure of the entire manufacturing industry in the United States was only 3.7%, while the aerospace industry was as high as 18.3%, and the communication industry was also 1 1.5%.
Large industrial enterprises play an important role in American industrial research. 100 The research funds of the largest companies account for 75% of the national industrial research funds. Industrial enterprises with more than 0/000 employees/kloc account for about 80% of the national industrial research funds. The basic research of industrial companies is more concentrated in a few large companies. 10 The basic research of large companies accounts for about half of the national industrial basic research.
Most large industrial companies have central laboratories or R&D departments, with abundant research funds, perfect research equipment and numerous scientific and technological personnel. For example, IBM has a central laboratory in New York State with more than 3,000 researchers, four of whom have won the Nobel Prize. 1992, the company's research and development funds reached 66. 4.4 billion US dollars, accounting for 65,438+00% of its sales. Some companies have relatively independent research institutions. For example, Bell Laboratories is an independent research institution affiliated to AT&T Company, and its R&D expenditure in 1.992 was as high as $31.40 billion. Known as the "invention factory" in the United States, it won more than 20,000 patents, invented transistors, lasers, solar cells, the first communication satellite, and founded radio astronomy. The laboratory currently has more than 20,000 staff members, 7 of whom have won the Nobel Prize. Attach great importance to basic research, which accounts for about 10% of the total R&D expenditure. In addition to the above two companies, the following companies are also among the best in the United States with 1992 scientific research funds: DuPont (1900 million US dollars), Digital Equipment Company (175.4 billion US dollars), Hewlett-Packard Company (16.2 billion US dollars), and Heismann Kodak Company (/kloc-). United Technologies (165438+400 million), Merck (110/200 million), Squibb (993 million).
In the past, due to the restrictions of anti-monopoly law, it was difficult for large American enterprises to cooperate in research. In order to enhance the international competitiveness of industrial enterprises, the US Congress passed the National Cooperative Research Act in 1984, which cleared the way for cooperative research among enterprises. By 1987, there are more than 360 joint research companies registered in the US Department of Justice. For example, the semiconductor research company consists of 35 companies including IBM, Intel Corporation and American Radio Corporation.
In addition to the technological innovation of large companies, the technological innovation of small enterprises has also attracted much attention in recent years. About 60,000 small technology enterprises are established in the United States every year. According to statistics, small enterprises get 60% patent authorization every year, and their per capita technological achievements are 2.6 times that of large enterprises. To a certain extent, small enterprises are more dynamic than large enterprises in technological innovation and technology diffusion.
Research institutions in institutions of higher learning
1992 * * There are 3,638 universities in the United States, but the research work is mainly concentrated in 125 research universities, among which the research funds of the top 40 universities account for 52% of the research funds of national universities, and the top 10 universities have 20% of the research funds of national universities. They are Johns Hopkins University (US$ 736 million), University of Michigan (US$ 393 million), Stanford University (US$ 368 million), University of Wisconsin-Madison (US$ 353 million), Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US$ 324 million), University of Minnesota (US$ 36,543,870) and University of Washington (US$ 3,654,370)
Scientific research is playing an increasingly important role in American universities. The proportion of research expenditure in the total expenditure of American universities was only 3.55% in 1930, increased to 4.04% in 1940, and increased to 10% in 1960, reaching 18% and 65438.
Research institutions in American universities can be roughly divided into four categories: ① There are more than 6,000 laboratories combining teaching and research in each department; ② There are about 5,000 independent research institutes in the United States, with many full-time researchers; (3) various research centers established by the government in universities; (4) cooperative research institutions. At present, there are 19 federally funded R&D centers in American universities, among which the Department of Energy has the largest number, accounting for about 75% of the research funds. Another example is the National Engineering Research Center, which is organized and funded by the National Science Foundation of the United States and managed by universities or university groups. Each center can get 65,438+0,000-65,438+0.5 million dollars from the government within five years, and encourage industry to provide financial support to these research centers. 1985 started construction, and 1990 has completed 25 buildings. Later, the federal government decided to set up more interdisciplinary science and technology centers in universities on the basis of engineering research centers, and encouraged universities and industrial companies to cooperate in research fields urgently needed by both sides. Such centers are also partially funded by the National Science Foundation of the United States, and more than 65,438+000 centers have been built. Since 1985, the National Science Foundation of the United States has allocated more than 200 million dollars to establish five supercomputer centers in universities. For example, the Supercomputer Center of the University of California is managed by a university group consisting of 19 universities. Since 1973, the National Science Foundation has implemented the "University-Industry Cooperation Research Center Plan" in colleges and universities. At present, with the support of the National Science Foundation, the state government and industry, 45 such centers have been established in universities.
Other non-profit research institutions
Such institutions are neither subordinate to government departments, nor are they located in or under the jurisdiction of universities, nor are they profit-oriented like industrial enterprises. This mainly refers to various private non-profit research institutes or companies, museums, zoos, botanical gardens, hospitals, some societies and private foundations. According to incomplete statistics, there are currently more than 200 non-profit research institutions in the United States with an annual budget of more than 2 million US dollars, and some of them have annual budgets close to 1 100 million US dollars. The famous ones are: International Stanford Research Institute, Drapier Laboratory, Bater Research Institute, RAND Corporation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts General Hospital, etc. Although the number of such research institutions is small, it has a great influence on the development of science and technology in the United States and is a useful supplement to the other three types of research institutions.
Science and technology policy
For a long time, the American government regards science and technology as the key factor to realize and maintain American economic growth and future economic prosperity. The proportion of research and development funds in the annual budget of the federal government has remained at around 6% for a long time. At present, improving the international competitiveness of American economy has become the center of national concern. In today's world, science and technology are changing with each passing day, and economic development is increasingly dependent on scientific and technological innovation. In essence, the problem of economic competitiveness boils down to a competition in the field of science and technology.
Since 1980s, the main points of the U.S. government's science and technology policy are as follows: ① National defense research is the main pillar of government research and development. In recent years, with the end of the Cold War, the proportion of defense R&D funds in the US government's scientific research funds has been declining, from 67% in 1988 to 60% in 199 1 year. The proportion of scientists and engineers employed in defense-related industries in the United States also decreased from 1987 to 16% and 1 1% to 13% and 8% respectively. However, strengthening military strength and developing advanced weapons and equipment has always been the primary task of the US government in the field of research and development. ② Vigorously strengthen basic research. The proportion of basic research funds in government private R&D funds has now expanded to 40%. 1995, Fermilab discovered the top quark, which is the latest important achievement in the field of basic research. In order to find this fleeting top quark, the American government organized 440 outstanding scientists to work together to tackle the problem. ③ Expand investment in university teaching and scientific research. (4) Strengthen venture capital investment in new technology enterprises. There are 600 venture capital companies in the United States, with total venture capital exceeding $24 billion, supporting 3,000 new technology enterprises. ⑤ Mobilize the enthusiasm of R&D in the industry. ⑥ Promote cooperation among government laboratories, industrial enterprises and universities. ⑦ Actively promote the commercialization of scientific research achievements. 1980, Congress passed the Stevenson Wildler Act, which stipulated that it was the task of federal government laboratories to transfer technology to industry and commercialization, and 0.5% of the total funds were used for this purpose. 1986, congress passed the federal technology transfer law, allowing private companies or individuals to enjoy the patent rights generated by government-funded research, and established the federal laboratory technology transfer group according to law. (8) Expand international scientific and technological cooperation and exchanges. In international scientific and technological cooperation, the US government has placed special emphasis on safeguarding the interests of the United States, especially protecting its intellectual property rights. The State Council has established the Bureau of Ocean, International Environment and Science, which is in charge of international scientific and technological cooperation and exchange.