Electrons belong to the light subclass of subatomic particles. Lepton is considered as one of the basic particles of matter, that is, it cannot be broken down into smaller particles. Its spin is 1/2, that is, it is another fermion (according to Fermi-Dirac statistics). The charge of the electron is-19 Coulomb e= 1.6× 10, and the mass is 9.10×10-31kg (0.5 1 mega-electron Usually expressed as e-. The antiparticle of an electron is a positron, which has the same mass, spin and positive charge as an electron. Atoms are the basic components of matter, consisting of electrons, neutrons and protons. Neutrons are uncharged, protons are positively charged, and atoms are uncharacteristic. Compared with the nucleus composed of neutrons and protons, the mass of electrons is extremely small. The mass of protons is about 1840 times that of electrons. When an electron leaves the nucleus and moves freely in other atoms, its net flow phenomenon is called current. Various atoms have different abilities to bind electrons, so losing electrons becomes positive ions and gaining electrons becomes negative ions. Static electricity refers to the situation that an object carries more or less electrons than the nucleus, and the positive and negative charges are unbalanced. When there is a surplus of electrons, it is called that the object is negatively charged; When there is a shortage of electrons, it is said that an object is positively charged. When the positive and negative charges are balanced, an object is said to be electrically neutral. Static electricity has many applications in our daily life, and inkjet printer is one of them. The electron was discovered by Joseph Thomson (commonly known as Thomson) in Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University in 1897 while studying cathode rays. A basic hypothesis about dense clouds with different probability distributions near the nucleus. At present, we can only consider the scope of action outside the nucleus (all hypothetical particles can only grope outside the nucleus now). It belongs to a family of low-mass matter particles called leptons and is set to have a negative unit charge. The basic properties of electronic blocks are small and light (205 times lighter than muons), and they are classified as a light subclass of subatomic particles. Lepton is a basic particle into which matter is divided. The spin of the electron is 1/2, which satisfies the Fermion condition (according to Fermi-Dirac statistics). The charge of an electron is about-1.6×10-19 coulombs, and the mass is 9.10×10-31kg (0.5 1 mega-electron Usually expressed as e-. Particles whose electrical properties are opposite to those of electrons are called positrons. They have the same mass, spin and positive charge as electrons. Electrons move around the nucleus in atoms. The greater the energy, the farther away from the trajectory of the nucleus. The space where electrons move is called the electron layer. The first layer can have at most two electrons. The second layer can have up to eight electrons. The nth layer can hold 2n^2 electrons at most, and the outermost layer can hold eight electrons at most. The number of electrons in the last layer determines whether the chemical properties of a substance are active or not. 1, 2 electrons are metal elements, and 3,4,2 electrons are metal elements. The nature of matter losing electrons is called reducibility, and matter is a reducing agent. The oxidizability or reducibility of a substance is determined by the difficulty of gaining and losing electrons, and has nothing to do with the number of electrons gained and lost. Editing the moving electrons in this paragraph We now know that the final charge is the tiny electrons that make up the atom. In a moving atom, every electron moving around the nucleus carries a negative charge of one unit, while protons in the nucleus carry a positive charge of one unit. Under normal circumstances, the number of electrons and protons in a substance is equal, the charges are balanced, and the substance is of medium size. When a substance rubs, it either loses electrons and leaves a positive charge (more protons than electrons). Either increase electrons and get a negative charge (more electrons than protons). This process is called triboelectrification. Free electrons (electrons escaping from atoms) can easily move between atoms in a conductor, but they cannot move in an insulator. In this way, the charge transferred to the conductor during the friction process will be quickly neutralized, because the excess electrons will flow away from the surface of the object, or the excess electrons will be adsorbed on the surface of the object to replace the lost electrons. Therefore, no matter how intense the friction is, it is impossible for the metal to rub and electrify. However, insulators such as rubber or plastic will leave charges on their surfaces after rubbing. The difference between the motion of electrons and the motion of macroscopic objects is that (1) the mass is very small (9.109×10-31kg); (2) Electrons are negatively charged; (3) The range of activity space is small (the diameter is about10-10m); (4) Fast moving speed (10-6m). The motion characteristics of electrons are very different from macroscopic objects-it has no definite orbit. So scientists mainly study the movement of electrons by building models. Extranuclear electron configuration's Law: 1. Electrons are arranged in different layers from near to far and from low energy to high energy outside the nucleus; 2. The maximum number of electrons contained in each layer is twice the square of n (n stands for the number of electron layers); 3. No more than 8 electrons in the outermost layer (no more than 2 electrons in the first layer), no more than 18 electrons in the second outer layer and no more than 32 electrons in the penultimate layer. Generally, electrons are always arranged in the electron layer with the lowest energy, that is, the first layer is arranged first, then the second layer is arranged after the first layer is full, and then the third layer is arranged after the second layer is full. Electron cloud is an image description of the probability density distribution of electrons in the outer space of nuclear. Electrons appear in a certain area of the outer space of the nucleus, like a negatively charged cloud around the nucleus, which is vividly called "electron cloud". It is the famous second-order partial differential Schrodinger equation, which was put forward by the Austrian scholar Schrodinger in 1926 on the basis of the German-Bulgarian relationship. The solution of this equation, if represented by a three-dimensional coordinate graph, is an electron cloud. Edit this electron-observe various phenomena of electrons from a distance, mainly by detecting the radiation energy of electrons. For example, in a high-energy environment such as the corona of a star, free electrons will form plasma and radiate energy through braking radiation. Plasma oscillation of electron gas. It is a fluctuation, which is caused by the rapid fluctuation of electron density. This fluctuation will cause energy emission. Astronomers can use radio telescopes to detect this energy. According to Planck relation, the frequency of photons is directly proportional to energy. When bound electrons jump between orbital domains of atoms with different energy levels, bound electrons will absorb or emit photons with specific frequencies. For example, when an atom is irradiated with a broadband light source, it is obvious that a special absorption spectrum will appear in the spectrum of transmitted radiation. Each element or molecule will show a special set of absorption spectra, such as hydrogen spectrum. Spectroscopy specifically measures the intensity and width of these spectral lines. By carefully analyzing these data, we can know the composition elements and physical properties of matter. Under the condition of laboratory control, the interaction between electrons and other particles can be used with particle detectors. Take a closer look. The characteristics of electrons, such as mass, spin and charge, can be measured and tested. Quadrupole ion trap and Pan Ning trap. Charged particles can be confined to a small area for a long time. In this way, scientists can accurately measure the properties of charged particles. For example, in one experiment, an electron was confined in the Pan Ning trap for 10 months. In 1980, the experimental value of electron magnetic moment has been accurate to 1 1 digit. At that time, it was the most accurate of all measured physical constants. In February, 2008, a group of physics teams from Lund University took the video image of electron energy distribution for the first time. Scientists use very short flashes of light, called atto seconds. Pulse, the first to capture the actual movement of electrons. In solid matter, the distribution of electrons can be visualized by angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy. This technology applies the photoelectric effect theory, irradiates high-energy radiation on the sample, and then measures the data of electron kinetic energy distribution and direction distribution of photoelectric emission. By analyzing these data carefully, we can infer the electronic structure of solid matter. Editing this history of electrons was discovered by Joseph Thomson of Cavendish Laboratory of Cambridge University when he was studying cathode rays in 1897. Xinhua News Agency, London, August 2, 2009 (Reporter Huang Kun) British researchers have recently confirmed the theoretical hypothesis that electrons can be split into spins and holes through experiments, which will help to develop the next generation of quantum computers. The University of Cambridge recently issued a press release saying that researchers from Cambridge University and their colleagues from Birmingham cooperated to complete the study. According to the communique, electrons are usually considered inseparable. But in 198 1, physicists suggest that under some special conditions, electrons can be split into magnetic spins and charged holes. Researchers at Cambridge University placed extremely fine "quantum wires" on a metal plate about 30 atoms away and placed them in an ultra-low temperature environment of about MINUS 273 degrees Celsius. Then the external magnetic field is changed, and it is found that the electrons on the metal plate split into spins and holes when they jump onto the wire through quantum tunneling effect. Researchers say that people's research on electronic properties once set off a semiconductor revolution, which made the computer industry develop rapidly. Now there is an opportunity to actually study the properties of spins and holes, which may promote the development of the next generation of quantum computers and bring a new round of computer revolution. Electrons are not elementary particles. 100 years ago, when RobertMillikan, an American physicist, first measured the charge of electrons through experiments, this charge value was widely regarded as the basic unit of charge. However, if electrons are regarded as "whole" or "basic" particles in the electron layer according to the classical theory, we will be extremely confused about the behavior of electrons in some physical situations, such as the non-integral quantum Hall effect when electrons are placed in a strong magnetic field. In order to solve this problem, in 1980, American physicist RobertLaughlin put forward a new theory to solve this problem, which also explained the complex interaction between electrons very concisely. However, the acceptance of this theory does cost the physics community: the bizarre inference from this theory shows that the current is actually composed of 1/3 electron charges. In a new experiment, scientists at Weizmann Institute designed a clever way to check whether this non-integer electron charge exists. This experiment will be able to detect the so-called "impact background noise", which is the direct evidence of the existence of fractional charge. Scientists immersed the semiconductor with current in a high-intensity magnetic field and detected the non-integral quantum Hall effect. They used a series of precision instruments to eliminate the interference of external noise, and amplified and analyzed it. The results show that the so-called "impact background noise" does come from electrons, which proves that the current is really composed of 1/3 electron charges. From this, they come to the conclusion that electrons are not basic particles in nature, but more "basic" and "simple" subatomic particles that cannot be divided. Edit this paragraph Electron layer Electron layer, also called electron layer or electron layer, is a group of atomic orbits with the same principal quantum number n in atomic physics. The electron shell consists of the electronic sequence of atoms. This can prove that the maximum number of electrons that the electron layer can hold is 2n. The X-ray absorption study of Henry Mosele and Bakla found the electron layer for the first time in the experiment. Bakla called them K, L, M (arranged by English mother and daughter) and other electron layers (at first, K and L electron layers were named B and A, but they were changed to K and L to reserve space for undiscovered electron layers). These letters were later replaced by n values such as 1, 2, 3, etc. They are used for Sigban symbols of spectrometers. The name of the electron shell comes from Apollo's ear model, which holds that electrons rotate around the core in groups at a certain distance, so the trajectory forms the shell. Edit the gains and losses of electronics in this paragraph. When the number of electrons in the outermost layer is 8 and the number of electrons in the innermost layer is 2, atoms form a relatively stable structure, except helium, which has an electron number of 2, but it is also a relatively stable structure and is not prone to chemical reactions. Rare gases are generally relatively stable structures, and chemical reactions are not easy to occur, while non-rare gases can be realized into relatively stable structures through chemical changes. The outermost electron number of metal elements is generally less than 4, and electrons are easily lost, while the outermost electron number of non-metal elements is general. Note: electrons cannot be thrown into nature at will. For example, sodium chloride is salt. The outermost electron number of chlorine is 7, so it is easy to get 1 electron, while the outermost electron number of sodium is 1, so it is easy to lose one electron. When chlorine reacts with sodium, sodium gives the outermost electrons to chlorine. At this time, the electronic charges of sodium and chlorine are not equal to those of the nucleus. Sodium is positively charged because it loses an electron, while chlorine has an electron. According to physics, when positive and negative attraction, chlorine and sodium will be attracted together to form sodium chloride. Most compounds are combined in this way. The general gains and losses of electrons of various elements can be expressed by chemical valence. For example, sodium generally loses an electron with a positive valence of+1, so the valence of sodium is+1, which is the valence of roots and roots of some common elements: