I Epicurus, Socrates' complaint, Cleopatra and Phaedo.
II "Cage", "Taiyada", "Wise Man" and "Politician"
Three. Parmenides, Philippas, Feast and Fidel.
A chapter in archibald, the second part of the chapter in archibald and the chapter in gorgias.
Wise men, politicians, Fiji and Libya, law and Republic.
Apologies from Socrates, the Republic and parmenides.
Plato's forgeries are also of great academic significance. The following works are considered to be works of later generations:
Minos, erich Yas, Theages, Critto and Lover.
Plato's works are mostly written in dialogue genre, with vivid characters, vivid and interesting scenes, beautiful and gorgeous language, rigorous and meticulous argumentation and rich and profound content, which realizes the high unity of philosophy and literature, logic and rhetoric, and has extremely important significance and value in both philosophy and literature.
At present, the complete works of Plato (four volumes) are widely used, published by People's Publishing House and translated by Wang Xiaochao. Plato believes that any philosophy must contain a theory about nature and the universe in order to be universal. Plato tried to grasp the eternal truth about the individual and nature, so he developed a natural philosophy that was suitable for and subject to his political and theological views.
Plato believes that tangible things in nature are fluid, but the "form" or "idea" that constitutes these tangible things is eternal. Plato pointed out that when we say "horse", we don't mean any horse, but any kind of horse. The meaning of "horse" itself is independent of all kinds of horses ("tangible"). It does not exist in time and space, so it is eternal. But a concrete and tangible horse that exists in the sensory world is "moving", will die and rot. This can be used as a preliminary explanation of Plato's theory of ideas.
Plato believes that we can't really understand those changing and flowing things. We only have opinions or opinions about them. The only thing we can really understand is the "form" or "concept" that we can understand with reason. So Plato thinks that knowledge is fixed and certain, and there can be no wrong knowledge. But the view may be wrong.
In Plato's Republic, there is a famous cave metaphor to explain idealism: a group of prisoners are in a cave, their hands and feet tied, and their bodies can't turn, so they can only turn their backs to the hole. There is a white wall in front of them and a fire burning behind them. On that white wall, they saw their own shadow and something between them and the fire. Because they can't see anything else, prisoners will think that shadows are real things. Finally, a man broke free from the shackles and groped his way out of the hole. He saw the real thing for the first time. He went back to the cave, trying to explain to others that those shadows are just illusory things and show them the bright way. But for those prisoners, this man seems to be more stupid than before he escaped, declaring to him that there is nothing in this world except the shadow on the wall.
Plato used this story to tell us that "form" is actually something real in the sun, and all our sensory world can feel is the shadow on the white wall. Compared with the bright world of reason, our nature is dark and monotonous. People who don't understand philosophy can only see those shadows, and philosophers see external things in the sunshine of truth.
Plato's Republic also depicts an ideal utopia for us. Plato believed that countries should be ruled by philosophers. Citizens in Plato's Republic are divided into three categories: patriots, soldiers and ordinary people. The defenders of the country are a few elites who manage the country. It can be inherited, but outstanding children of other classes can also be cultivated into patriots, and the descendants of patriots may also be reduced to the ordinary class. The task of defending the country is to supervise the formulation and implementation of the code. Plato has a complete set of theories to achieve this goal. His utopia requires everyone to have his special function in society to meet the overall needs of society. But in this country, women and men have the same rights, and men and women are completely equal. When it is in the public interest, the government can lie. Everyone should do his own thing and should not disturb others. Today, Plato's utopia is a terrible totalitarian country. But "the ideal country is actually the view of scientists who manage the country in the right way", Plato himself did not try to realize the state machine in the ideal country.
Plato pointed out in the Law that a "constitutional state" is the best country after an ideal country. He also pointed out in the book that women and men should receive the same respect and training.
Plato tried to make astronomy a branch of mathematics. He believes: "Astronomy, like geometry, can be studied by asking questions and solving problems, regardless of celestial boundaries." Plato believed that the beginning of the universe was an indistinguishable chaos. This chaotic development is the result of the activities of supernatural gods. Plato believes that the most important feature of the universe from chaos to order is that the creator has made a rational plan for the world; The mechanical process of putting this scheme into practice is a natural event.
Plato's cosmology is basically a mathematical cosmology. He imagined that there were two kinds of right-angled triangles at the beginning of the universe, one was half of a square and the other was half of an equilateral triangle. From these triangles, four kinds of regular polyhedrons are reasonably produced, which constitute particles of four elements. Fire particles are regular tetrahedrons, gas particles are regular octahedrons, water particles are regular icosahedrons, and soil particles are cubes. The fifth regular polyhedron is a dodecahedron formed by a regular pentagon, and it is the fifth element that constitutes the matter in the sky, called ether. The whole universe is a sphere, because the sphere is symmetrical and perfect, and any point on the sphere is the same. The universe is also alive and moving, and a soul fills all the spaces. The motion of the universe is circular, because circular motion is the most perfect and does not need hands or feet to push it. The quantities of the four elements in the universe are as follows: the ratio of fire to gas is equal to the ratio of gas to water, and the ratio of water to soil. Everything can be named by a number, which is the proportion of the elements they contain. Political Thought In The Republic, Plato designed a picture of a just country: the country is moderate in scale, and people can have a panoramic view of the whole country from the heights in the city. Plato believed that the country originated from the division of labor, so he divided the citizens of the ideal country into three levels: rulers, warriors and laborers, representing three qualities: wisdom, courage and desire. Rulers rely on their own philosophical wisdom and moral strength to govern the country; Samurai assisted in governing the country and defended the security of the country with loyalty and courage; Laborers provide material means of subsistence for the whole country. Each of the three levels has its own responsibilities and its own position. In such a country, politicians are highly respected philosophers. Only philosophers can understand thoughts, have perfect virtue and superb wisdom, understand where justice lies, and govern the country fairly under the guidance of reason. Rulers and warriors have no private property and family, because private property and family are the root of all selfish evil thoughts. Employees are never allowed to own luxury goods. The utopia also attaches great importance to education, because the quality and morality of the people determine the quality of the country. Plato even envisaged sending all people above 10 abroad at the beginning of the founding of the People's Republic of China, because they have been influenced by the old culture and it is difficult to change. All citizens should receive lifelong education from music, physical education, mathematics to philosophy. The content of education must be YEATION, and it is not allowed to introduce the epics and tragic poets of Homer and hesiod into China, because they will poison the minds of young people. Plato claimed that this is an ideal country of "first-class goodness", and other regimes are perverts of this ideal country. Because of the poor marriage, the ideal regime caused three levels of confusion, leading to the struggle and the rise of the military regime. In the military regime, a few powerful people gather wealth and form oligarchy. The sharp contradiction between the rich and the poor led to the revolution of the people and democracy. Democracy at its extreme will be replaced by authoritarian regimes.
The statesman was written between Plato's two visits to Syracuse (367 BC ~ 36 BC1year), which was a period when his political practice in Syracuse was frustrated and his thoughts changed. The main idea of The Politician is to discuss the definition of real politicians and politics. Plato put forward the concepts of political means and mixing in this dialogue; The role of law was clearly discussed for the first time, and the law was regarded as the standard for dividing political power. He believes that a real politician (the king of philosophy) does not need the rule of law, but in reality, real politicians are extremely rare. Even if there are real politicians, the law still has a certain role. Because politics is not only an art, but also a science. Law is like a training plan and prescription for politicians by coaches and doctors. Although it is absurd in theory, it is necessary in practice.
Plato further developed his thoughts on the role of law in his last work, Law. Ideally, he respected the rule of the king of philosophy, "no law or regulation is more powerful than knowledge"; Starting from reality, he emphasized that human beings must have laws and abide by them, otherwise their lives would be like the most savage beasts. Under the guidance of this thought, he designed his own "second-class city-state" in the legal chapter of 12, including geographical environment, territory size, population size and source, national economic life, class structure, political system, laws and other detailed rules. Due to the change of guiding ideology, the second-class city-state is quite different from the just country in the ideal country in concrete measures. Mainly: the political system has changed from a sage regime ruled by the king of philosophy to a mixed regime to prevent individual monopoly. "Republic" advocates that the rulers implement the system of public property, public wife, public food and public religion, while "law" restores private property and family. In the Republic, citizens are classified according to their innate endowment, while in the legal chapter, they are classified according to their acquired property. Plato is also the first person in the history of western education to put forward a complete pre-school education thought and establish a complete education system. Plato began to engage in educational research activities in middle age. Starting from the philosophical thought that idea precedes matter, he emphasized rational exercise in the education system. He put children aged 3-6 under the care of nannies, and they would gather in the village temple to play games and listen to stories and fairy tales. Plato thinks these are very instructive. After the age of 7, children will begin to learn all kinds of knowledge and skills that soldiers need, including reading, writing, calculating, riding, throwing guns, archery and so on. From the age of 20 to 30, those students who show special interest in abstract thinking will continue their studies and learn arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and acoustics, so as to exercise their thinking ability and make them begin to explore the mysteries of the universe. Plato pointed out the significance of each subject to the development of abstract thinking. He advocates that future rulers should further study dialectics after the age of 30 to gain insight into the world of thought. In five years, he can be the king of philosophy that rules the country.
In his slave owner pedagogy system, physical education occupies an important position. Plato also attached great importance to women's sports. He thinks: "Girls should practice all kinds of dancing and wrestling; After marriage, they will take part in battle drills, camp and use weapons ... because once all the troops come out to fight the enemy, they can defend their children and the city "(Plato's educational theory). In Plato's exposition, almost all aspects of sports at that time were involved. He believes that sports should include educational means and health skills. He made a fierce attack on the sportsmanship and professionalism of Athens at that time, and also criticized the citizens' thoughts and attitudes of despising sports. He advocates the harmonious development of body and mind, emphasizing "exercising with physical exercise and cultivating the mind with music". Plato's rich sports thoughts have a far-reaching influence on the development of sports in later generations. Plato and Aristotle were the most influential philosophers in ancient Greece, among which Plato had a great influence on later generations. Plato wrote a book in the mouth of his teacher Socrates, saying that when the mind abandons the body and yearns for the truth, then thought is the best. When the soul is infected by the sins of the body, people's desire for truth will not be satisfied.
In Europe, there has long been Platonic love called "spiritual love" by China people. This kind of love thinks that the combination of flesh is impure and dirty, and that love and lust are two opposite States. Therefore, when a person is really in love, it is impossible to think of physical union with the object he loves.
In today's people's eyes, Plato's view of love is incredible. On the other hand, an American scholar put forward a new view on Plato's love as understood by modern people. Ira reiss, president of the American East-West Social Society and author of American Family System, believes that the spiritual love advocated by Plato actually refers to a kind of love between the same sex, that is, "homosexuality". The ancient Greeks believed that the process of homosexuality was more of a spiritual communication, a spiritual communication than a physical communication. In the ancient Greek society where women received little education, it was difficult for men to find spiritual opponents from women. This is why Plato emphasized the love between people. Plato firmly believes that "true" love is a persistent emotion, only time is the touchstone of love, and only extraordinary love can stand the test of time.
American sociologists have different opinions about whether Platonic love is pure love with only spiritual intercourse or elegant love with physical intercourse but emphasizing spiritual intercourse. But one thing is certain, that is, Plato believed that love can sublimate people. He said that for a person who lives a noble life, it is not blood, honor and wealth that guide his behavior, but love. There is no emotion in the world so deeply rooted in people's hearts as love. If a person in love has committed disgraceful acts and is seen by his father, friends or anyone else, he will not look pale like a lover, lose everything and be unable to face the person he loves and the person who loves himself. Looking for eternity in a short life
Love is the joy brought by beauty, the miracle created by wisdom and the surprise given by the gods. People who lack love long for love, while those who have love cherish it.
Love, only affection, can make people dare to give their lives for the people they love; This can be done not only by men, but also by women.
Respect for people should not be superior to respect for truth.
Time takes everything away, and it will change your name, appearance, personality and destiny in the years.
Procrastination is the best way to suppress anger.
Early education should be a kind of entertainment, so it is easier to find a natural hobby.
The human heart can be divided into two parts, one is good and the other is evil. If there are many good things that can stop evil, it is enough for the cloud to be independent and praised by the United States; In view of poor education or the influence of the wicked, the evil part is bigger, and the good part is more and more occupied. I am my own slave and everyone spits on me.
A good beginning is half the battle.
The most moral people are those who have morality but don't show it on the outside, and still feel satisfied.
Good people are good because they are smart, and bad people are bad because they are stupid.
All knowledge that deviates from justice should be called cunning, not wisdom
Not knowing your ignorance is double ignorance.
Nothing is happier than health, although they didn't think it was the greatest happiness before they got sick.
Some stories that we should try our best to make children start to hear must be the best lessons with moral influence.
Law is the crystallization of all human wisdom, including all social thoughts and morals.
Only the dead can see the end of the war. Platonism is the most influential mathematical philosophy in the history of mathematics. It originated from Plato in ancient Greece, and there has always been an explicit or implicit Platonism concept in western mathematics since then. In the19th century, it almost occupied the dominant position of mathematics. At the beginning of the 20th century, the debate among the three schools of mathematics foundation just subsided, and Platonism became one of the hot topics of discussion.
The basic viewpoint of Platonism: the object of mathematics is mathematical concepts such as number, quantity and function, and mathematical concepts exist objectively as abstract general or "total phase". Plato believed that they existed in a special world of ideas, and later Platonists did not accept the "theory of ideas", but they also believed that mathematical concepts were a special objective existence independent of the real world and an eternal existence independent of time, space and human thinking. Mathematicians get a new concept, not creation, but a description of this objective existence; New achievements in mathematics are not inventions, but discoveries. Correspondingly, Platonism believes that the truth of mathematical theory is objectively determined by the existence independent of the real world, and this truth is understood by "mental" experience and some kind of "mathematical intuition". Only through intuition can people reach the "mathematical world" independent of the real world.
Modern Platonism is also called "realism" because mathematical concepts are considered to be real. Platonism has a considerable influence in modern western mathematics, and some great mathematicians, such as G. Cantor, Russell, Godel and bourbaki, basically hold this view. It is generally believed that this is not accidental, but a philosophical reflection on the simple belief that mathematics reflects the objective world and mathematics has objective truth. Because of this, Platonism has a certain positive effect on the historical development of mathematics: it urges mathematicians to take an objective and scientific position in their own research, and when some highly abstract mathematical theories are doubted by people because they can't find realistic prototypes, it may also give people some faith. Although this belief is blind, it may also lead to mistakes.
The mistake of Platonism is obvious: taking the form of reflection as the object of understanding; Regard abstraction as concrete objective existence; It is of course an objective truth to think that a form of thinking itself is objective. Studying truth without human practice will inevitably lead to fallacy. Platonism is objective idealism in philosophy. "
Claiming to believe in Platonism does not mean accepting all Plato's viewpoints, but often only acknowledging the following specific ideas: the form of ideas exists and is eternal, which is more real and perfect than the phenomena in the world, and even the only truly true and perfect entity. This system also includes the idea that only the soul can know the form of the idea.
The defense of Platonism includes: the comparison between the generality of abstract description of language objects and the particularity of the described objects; Abstract and unquestionable accuracy of mathematical objects.
The forms of ideas in Platonism often have different meanings in different situations. Such as: the name of a class of things; Mathematical object; Natural laws, etc.
With idealism as the core, it includes cosmology, epistemology, four virtues and utopia, ethics and social politics, aesthetics, conceptual dialectics, educational theory and so on. It is the first huge objective idealism system in the history of European philosophy, which has a great influence on later western philosophy.