Immanuel Kant (1April 22, 724-1February12,0804) is a German philosopher, astronomer, one of the founders of the nebula theory, the founder of German classical philosophy, an idealist, an agnostic and the founder of German classical aesthetics. 1804, Kant died, and the representative figures of German classical philosophy were born: Feuerbach (1804 ~ 1872), Ludwig Andreas.

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And Kant said, what if we turn things upside down and make them conform to our understanding? Kant compared this way of thinking with Copernicus's "Heliocentrism": Before Copernicus, people thought that all the planets revolved around our earth, but Copernicus said that our earth revolved around other planets. Kant brought about a Copernican transformation in philosophy. He said that things are not affecting people, but people are affecting things. We are building the real world. In the process of understanding things, people are more important than things themselves. Kant even thinks that we can't know the truth of things, only the appearance of things. Kant's famous assertion is: intellectuality legislates for nature. His argument has something in common with modern quantum mechanics: the characteristics of things are related to observers. In Critique of Pure Reason, Kant studied the forms of human perception, namely space and time. Matter existing in time and space is processed into experience by human cognition, and Kant calls the form of human cognition "(absolute) category". These forms of human reason include people's assumptions about the soul, the world and God. Kant understands them as some restrictive principles, and people's experience world is constructed through these principles. Critique of Pure Reason studies how human beings know the outside world, while Critique of Practical Reason published by Kant in 1788 answers the ethical question: What should we do? In short, Kant tells us that we should do our duty. But what do you mean by "due diligence"? In order to answer this question, Kant put forward the famous "(absolute) Kategorischer Imperativ": "If you do this, you will always make the criterion of your will a universal law-making principle." Kant believes that man is morally independent. Although his behavior is limited by objective cause and effect, the reason why he becomes a man lies in his moral freedom, his ability to transcend cause and effect, and his ability to be responsible for his actions. The question to be answered by "judgment criticism" is: What hope can we have? Kant's answer is: if I want to be a real morality, I must assume that God exists and everything is not over after the end of life. In Critique of Judgment, Kant also pays attention to the purpose, significance and mode of action of people's spiritual activities, including people's aesthetic appreciation and fantasy ability. In fact, Kant tried to reconcile empiricism and rationalism in order to unify thinking and object. He thinks that Hume's extreme empiricism must be refuted. For the first time, Kant attributed the identity of object and thinking to "the initiative of subject", which is a milestone in German philosophy. Fichte developed this initiative into an extremely morbid solipsism on the basis of Kant. Because Kant didn't realize that contradiction is the driving force of things, it caused the duality of his own system. However, at this stage of Kant, the identity of subject and object is temporarily attributed to the initiative of subject, while German classical philosophy was gradually established after later generations criticized and developed Kant's philosophy. I have to say that Kant's contribution is great. On Permanent Peace, published in 1795, should be Kant's last book with far-reaching influence on mankind. The ideas of world citizens, world confederations and sovereign countries' non-interference in internal affairs are still of practical significance. Emmanuel Kant (1724- 1804) is a German philosopher, astronomer, one of the founders of the nebula theory and the founder of German classical idealism. 1754, Kant published a paper on whether the earth's rotation changes and whether the earth will age, which boldly questioned the "theory of cosmic invariance". 1755, Kant published the book General History of Nature and Theory of Celestial Bodies, and put forward the theory of the origin of the solar system for the first time. Kant pointed out in his book that the solar system evolved from nebulae. This nebula consists of solid particles of different sizes. Celestial bodies began to form in the most attractive places. Gravitation makes particles close to each other, and large particles attract small particles to form bigger lumps, which are getting bigger and bigger. The central part with the strongest gravity attracts the most particles and forms the sun first. The motion of the outer particles falling to the central body under the gravity of the sun changes direction due to the collision of other particles and becomes a circular motion around the sun. These particles orbiting the sun gradually form several centers of gravity and finally condense into planets orbiting the sun. The formation process of satellites is similar to that of planets. However, due to the rejection of metaphysical view of nature at that time, this theory did not attract people's attention and was buried for a long time. It was not until 1796 that P.S. Laplace, a famous French mathematician and astronomer, independently put forward another nebula hypothesis about the origin of the solar system in his book On the Cosmic System. People remember that Kant put forward this theory 4 1 years ago, so later generations called this theory Kant-Laplace theory. Throughout the nineteenth century, this theory has been dominant in astronomy. Although most of Kant's works are difficult and it takes courage to read his books, Kant is an unavoidable peak in philosophical research. His influence on German thought is enormous. His attitude of strictly observing discipline and ensuring accuracy is very common in Germans today, and the most sophisticated instruments come from these serious and almost stupid people. More importantly, he set an example for German philosophical speculation, making philosophy a popular science in Germany, so that the proportion of the most famous philosophers and thinkers in the world with German symbols is too high. Hegel, Fichte, Marx, Nietzsche ... In many countries, as long as one person can appear, it is enough to boast of the world's famous names, but it has appeared one after another in Germany. Heine said: "Germany was introduced into the philosophical path by Kant, and philosophy became a national cause. A group of outstanding thinkers suddenly appeared on the land of Germany, just like being summoned by magic. "

The Chinese version of Kant's "Three Criticism" compares what I know with what I read here. 1, metaphysical criticism. There are six Chinese versions (Hu, Lan, Mou, Wei, Deng and Li). In 1930s, Hu Renyuan once had a translation (business edition), and I only read this material in Sanlian Bookstore. I haven't seen the original translation. Next is the translation of Lan (Business Edition), which is a common version in China in the last century. The style of writing and writing is relatively smooth, but it is difficult for some people with poor knowledge of classical Chinese to understand. Some translated names are also under discussion. Next, it should be Mr. Mou Zongsan's translation, entitled "Kant's Critique of Pure Reason", which contains Mr. Mou's annotations, so it is called "annotation", which is widely used only in Hong Kong and Taiwan, except for some domestic scholars who have no chance to read it. Among them, the translation of terms is also different from that of Chinese mainland. I have read this translation of Mr. Mou, but I just saw it and didn't finish it. In the early 1990s, Wei Zhuomin's Chinese translation was published (Huazhong Normal Edition), and the book was published as a legacy. Unfortunately, because the publishing house is not well-known and the distribution area is not wide enough, it has not had a wide impact. The terminology of Wei's translation has basically become a recognized standard at present, but the proofreading of this version is very poor (there are still many mistakes and some surprises after reprinting), and the fluency of sentences is worse than that of the blue version. The above translations are all from English. Academic circles call for a new literal translation of German. After several years of brewing, Deng Xiaomang's translation was published in 2004, which coincided with the 200th anniversary of Kant's death. Deng Xiaomang and his teacher, Yang Zutao, began to publish works on Kant's studies in the mid-1990s. All the quotations in the book are literally translated from German, and the initial translation is simply unreasonable. However, after years of research, the three major criticisms published in 2003 and 2004 were well translated. At least it is the best translation I have ever seen. Since the mid-1990s, the study of Kant's philosophy has become an "outstanding study". At the same time, Li also translated Critique of Pure Reason directly from German. But I think Deng's translation is better than Li's. 2. There are four versions of Criticism of Practical Reason (Guan, Mou, North Korea and Deng). Compared with Critique of Pure Reason, the translation of Critique of Practical Reason is easier. This is not only the reason for the length, but also the reason for its content (it can be related to individuals, unlike the obscure speculation in Critique of Pure Reason). Guan's translation is the earliest universal translation with good quality. Mr. Mou Zongsan's translation is called Kant's moral philosophy, and I didn't even have a chance to meet him. What a pity! All the above are translated from the English version. It was not until the end of the last century that the translation of Hanshui Law was published, which was based on the German text and translated very well. Then came the Deng Xiaomang translation published in 2003. Korean translation has its own merits. 3. Critique of Judgment is widely circulated in China (there are three versions, translated by Zong Baihua, Wei Zhuomin, Mou and Deng), but the translation situation is not optimistic. Mou's translation of Critique of Judgment is unknown. Deng's translation is based on the German version, and now it has basically replaced the translation of He Zhuohe. Selected Works of Kant's Aesthetics? Criticism of judgment? Translated by Beijing Cao Junfeng? Beijing Normal University Press, attached in 2003: Collected Works of Criticism on Historical Reason (two versions in total, translated by He and Li), He Zhaowu's translation is quite popular in China; Mr. Li Minghui's translation "Essays on Historical Philosophy" is also well translated. In addition, there are books such as Introduction to Future Metaphysics, Fundamentals of Moral Metaphysics and Practical Anthropology. Li began to translate the Complete Works of Kant in 2000 (three volumes and nine volumes, published in 2003). Aside from translation itself, at least the introduction to Kant's philosophy is great. I just transferred my job and came to Nanning from Xi 'an. I didn't bring the book (which led me to buy many more books), so I can only say that the version with vague impression and memory can't be modified. 1, Deng Xiaomang translation published in 2003~2004, People's Publishing House. 2. Li's translation was also published by Renmin University of China Press in 2003. 3. The translation of Hanshui Law is 1999 business edition. 4. The blue translation was a commercial version in 1950s, and later it was reprinted one after another. 5. The second volume of Critique of Judgment translated by Wei was published in the late 1970s, which is a business edition. His translation of Critique of Pure Reason 1990 was published by Huazhong Normal University and reprinted in 2000 (or 200 1) (hardcover). 6. The first volume of Zong Baihua's Critique of Judgment was the commercial edition in 1950s and 1960s. Later reprinted one after another. 7. At the end of 1990s, he translated the Collected Works of Criticism of Historical Reason into a commercial version (1999 in my impression). 8. My impression of Guan's Critique of Practical Reason is 1956 business edition, which was reprinted by Guangxi Normal University Press at the beginning of this century. The business edition is usually only available in libraries now. 9. Mr. Mou Zongsan's translation is rare in Chinese mainland, and it is basically published by Taipei Student Publishing House. Except Critique of Judgment, which was published late (only in the late 1980s and early 1990s), the other two editions were published in 1950s and 1960s. After that, it was reprinted in Hong Kong and Taiwan. 10, Li Minghui's Essays on Historical Philosophy was published by Taipei Lianjing in 1990s. 1 1, translated by Hu Renyuan, published by the Commercial Press in 1930s.

Kant's famous saying

1. Honesty is better than all intelligence, because it is the basic condition of intelligence. Shyness is the secret of nature, used to restrain the desire to indulge. It follows the call of nature, but it is always integrated with goodness and virtue. There are two things, the more you think about them regularly and persistently, the more you enrich your mind with their growing charm and reverence: the starry sky above me and the moral law in my heart. If you don't learn humor, people will be too bitter. 5. Whoever doesn't immediately feel disgusted when encountering immoral things, and who doesn't immediately feel happy when encountering beautiful things, has no sense of morality, and such people have no conscience. Who did immoral things, afraid of being sentenced, did not blame himself for his misconduct, but was frightened by the thought of painful consequences. Such people have no conscience, only the surface of conscience. However, whoever can realize the immorality of the behavior itself, regardless of the consequences, has a conscience. 6. Beauty is a symbol of moral goodness. Category: Morality 7. The busier we are, the more strongly we feel that we are alive, and the more aware of the existence of our lives. 8. Conscience is an instinct to judge oneself according to moral standards, not just an ability; This is an instinct. 9. to judge beauty, you must have a cultivated mind. 10. Work is the best way to make life happy. Note: The job here refers to the job you like. ) 1 1. Living without an aim is like sailing without a compass. 12. If you want to achieve great things, you should start at a young age. 13. Activities or sports are teachers of human health. 14. A person can't be condemned as a slave, he can only think of himself as a slave. 15. Philosophy cannot be taught, and philosophy will always be the cause of thinkers. 16. "I am not teaching you philosophy, but teaching you how to think philosophically" 17. When love needed me, I was not qualified to enjoy it, but when I needed it, it left me. . . . . . 18. Rationality holds its own principle in one hand, conducts research and experiments based on that principle in the other hand, and moves towards nature. 19. The busier I am, the stronger I feel alive, and the more I realize the existence of my life. 20. I am lonely, I am free, and I am my own emperor. 2 1. Being angry is to punish yourself with other people's mistakes. 22. Man is the ultimate goal of the creation of this world, because man is the only concept in this world that can form a purpose, and it is a system that can form a purpose from a large number of purposeful things with the help of his reason. 23. If there is no sufficient reason to refuse the child's request, it should be met; If there is a reason to disagree with this request, then he is not allowed to cheat. Once you refuse, don't change. 24. In addition to its beauty, grandeur and generosity, the sea has a self-purification function. 25. One of the most complicated tasks of education is to combine obeying the compulsion of law with educating children to make good use of their free power. As long as children don't do things harmful to themselves and others, they should be given freedom of action and don't try to change their wishes. Let children know that only by providing others with the possibility to achieve their goals can they achieve their goals. 26. Morality needs to dominate itself first. 27. Rationality holds its own principle in one hand, conducts research and experiments based on that principle in the other hand, and moves towards nature. 28. Genius is a person who makes his own laws. 29. Morality is really not a doctrine guiding people how to make themselves happy, but a doctrine guiding people how to deserve happiness. 30. Having a direct interest in natural beauty ... is always a symbol of kindness. 3 1. People are actually rational people, so they exist because they are the purpose themselves, not just for this or that tool of will. 32. This admirable concept of "personality" made us notice from the very beginning that our behavior did not conform to it, and because of some setbacks, we suppressed our conceit. Even in very ordinary human reason, this concept is natural and obvious. A person who knows a little shame sometimes finds that he could have told a harmless lie in order to get rid of some disgusting behaviors. Even seek some benefits for his lovely and respectable friend, but he never lies for fear of secretly despising him? An honest man can get rid of some kind of suffering as long as he quits his post, but isn't it because he consciously realizes that he can set an example, safeguard human dignity and respect it, and feel guilty and not afraid of conscience condemnation? 33. Beauty is a symbol of moral goodness. 34. All our knowledge begins with sensibility, then goes into intellectuality, and finally ends in rationality. Nothing is higher than reason.