According to the three basic laws of human development, the definition of "development" is put forward.

This paper discusses three long-standing controversial theoretical issues about "development" and some consensus of researchers at this stage.

Summarize the existing research on brain physiological development and its possible application in teaching.

This paper expounds the influence of the development laws and stages in Piaget's cognitive development theory on today's educational research and practice.

This paper expounds the influence of the development law in Vygotsky's cognitive development theory on today's educational research and practice.

Section 1 The concept of development

Development: in psychology, it usually refers to the changes that have taken place in the process of human beings from fertilized eggs to death. This term does not apply to all changes, but refers to those changes that occur in a certain order and last for a period of time.

I. Issues related to development

(A) the source of development: congenital and acquired

Environment plays a vital role in development, but so do physiological factors and individual differences. What is exciting is that we should understand how these two factors work together.

(b) Development trajectory: continuity and discontinuity

Many changes in adolescence are discontinuous processes.

(3) Development opportunity: critical period and sensitive period.

Now most psychologists will focus on the sensitive period rather than the critical period. The so-called sensitive period means that individuals are ready to experience or deal with specific events within a period of time.

Second, the general law of development.

(A) the speed of development varies from person to person.

The difference of students' development speed is normal and will exist in any large student group.

(2) The development is relatively orderly.

"Orderly" development does not mean that development is linear or completely predictable-individuals can move forward, or they can keep events stable or even retrogress for a period of time.

(3) Development is gradual.

Few changes happen overnight. These abilities can be cultivated in the end, but it takes time, not overnight.

Section 2 Brain and Cognitive Development

With the rapid development of brain imaging technology, scientists have a deeper understanding of the function of the brain. When children or adults deal with different cognitive tasks, functional magnetic resonance imaging can show different blood flow patterns in the brain. Event-related potentials (ERP) can measure the activity of brain current passing through scalp or skull in cognitive activities such as reading or learning vocabulary. Positron emission tomography can track brain activity in different situations.

I. Development of neurons

It is found that the process of producing new neurons, that is, neurogenesis, will last until adulthood. The process of neuron overproduction and pruning can be divided into two types. One kind is called empirical anticipation type, which mainly refers to the phenomenon that synapses in a specific brain area grow excessively because they wait for stimulation for a certain period of time. The second type of overproduction and pruning is called empirical dependence. If parents or teachers can have a loving conversation with their children at the same time, the amount of stimulation will be more sufficient.

Second, the development of cerebral cortex.

The existence of cerebral cortex gives human beings the greatest power on earth, such as solving complex problems and communicating with language. The cortex, which controls the motor parts of the body, is the earliest mature. Then there is the cortex that controls complex perception; Finally, the frontal lobe, which controls the advanced thinking process, develops and matures. The temporal lobe, which plays an important role in emotion, judgment and language, will not be fully developed until high school or even later. Compared with older children or adults, children's brains show greater plasticity and adaptability, because their brains are relatively low in specificity or lateralization.

Third, the development of teenagers and brains.

With the maturity of the limbic system, teenagers are more and more sensitive to the pursuit of happiness and emotional stimulation. For these young students, teachers can guide them to devote their energy and enthusiasm to the fields of politics, environment or social undertakings, help them establish emotional ties with people in historical or literary works, and use their positive power to enrich their strong emotions from two aspects. At the same time, an effective and positive belief system in family, school and community can also help teenagers reduce reckless and dangerous behaviors.

Fourth, the integrated point of view: How does the brain work?

The brain is constantly changing and is shaped by personal activities, culture and environment. We build our knowledge by participating in an activity and manipulating objects and concepts mentally and physically.

Verb (abbreviation for verb) neuroscience, learning and teaching

Some studies have found that teaching may lead to changes in brain activity.

Reading is neither an innate skill nor an inevitable skill-every brain must be taught to read. Reading is a complex process, which needs to mobilize multiple systems of the brain to recognize phonetic, literal, semantic and sequential information at the same time, and to establish contact with the existing information of readers.

If teachers and other educators can effectively reduce the pressure and fear in the school environment, teach students the strategies of emotional adjustment, and provide a positive learning environment that can stimulate students' motivation, teaching will become more effective.

Sixth, the enlightenment of brain research to teachers.

If the brain is abnormal in neural pathway or structure, it will restrict individual learning to some extent.

Different cognitive functions are different and related to specific brain regions.

The brain has good plasticity, so rich and active environment and flexible teaching strategies can promote children's cognitive development and adult's learning effect.

Some learning difficulties have their neurophysiological basis, so nerve test is helpful to diagnose, correct and evaluate the effect.

The brain will change, but this process takes time.

Learning from real daily life problems and specific experiences can help students construct knowledge and provide them with various ways to learn and extract relevant information.

It takes a long time to learn and consolidate knowledge. Knowledge appears repeatedly in different situations, rather than once, which helps students to establish solid and complex connections.

Compared with small concrete facts, teachers should emphasize big and general concepts, so that students can establish lasting and effective knowledge categories and relatively stable connections.

Teaching can take the form of stories.

Section III Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

I. Factors affecting development

Piaget pointed out that there are four factors-physiological maturity, activity, social experience and balance, and it is their interaction that affects the change of thinking.

Second, the basic tendency of thinking

Thinking process and knowledge develop through the change and adaptation of thinking organization-adaptation includes two complementary processes: assimilation and adaptation.

Three, the four stages of cognitive development

Piaget believes that all people go through the same four stages in the same order: perceptual movement stage, pre-operation stage, concrete operation stage and formal operation stage. Not everyone can develop to the fourth stage, and only 30%-40% of high school students can complete Piaget's formal operation task.

4. Information processing of cognitive development, new Piaget and the perspective of neuroscience.

Support and practice are the key factors that affect children's cognitive development.

Fifth, the limitations of Piaget's theory.

Problems in the development stage

Underestimate children's abilities.

Cognitive development and cultural issues

Section IV Vygotsky's Social and Cultural Views

First, the social source of individual thinking

Vygotsky believes that children's cognition is developed by interacting with people who are better at thinking and have a higher level of thinking. Of course, students can learn from adults, peers and the Internet.

Second, cultural tools and cognitive development

Vygotsky believes that cultural tools and psychological tools play a very important role in cognitive development. The essence of cognitive development is to learn to use psychological tools such as language, so as to achieve a higher level of thinking process problem solving. Language is the most important symbol system in children's cultural toolbox, and it is also in modern cultural toolbox that language helps other tools.

Third, the role of language and self-speech.

Vygotsky emphasizes the role of learning and language in cognitive development more than Piaget. He believes that "thinking is determined by language, way of thinking and children's social and cultural experience".

Students should be allowed and even encouraged to use their own language in school. If the teacher asks students to be absolutely quiet when solving problems, it may increase the difficulty of solving problems for students.

Fourth, the nearest development zone.

Vygotsky pointed out that children have two levels of development, one is their "existing level of development when they solve problems independently", and the other is the level they can reach when they solve problems under the guidance of adults or with the assistance of more capable peers. The gap between the two is the latest development zone.

Piaget defines development as the active construction of knowledge, while learning only passively forms connections. Vygotsky believes that learning is an active process and there is no need to wait passively for cognitive development.

Limitations of Vygotsky's theory of verb (abbreviation of verb)

Overemphasizing the role of social communication in cognitive development and failing to further expand and improve the theory are two major limitations.

The fifth part is the enlightenment of Piaget and Vygotsky's theory to teachers.

First, the inspiration of Piaget's theory to teachers

An important revelation of Piaget's theory to teaching is that teaching should not make students tired of learning because what they learn is too simple, nor should they give up because what they learn is too difficult to understand.

The basic view is that individuals are constructing their own knowledge, and learning is a process of construction.

Second, the enlightenment of Vygotsky's theory to teachers

Advanced psychological function is developed through cultural tools and transmitted from person to person, and there are at least three different ways to complete this process: imitation learning, guided learning and cooperative learning.

Children are not the only ones who discover the cognitive operation of conservation or classification. Family members, teachers, peers and even software tools will participate in this discovery process and provide help.

Third, teaching and "magic center"

Both of them agree that education should be carried out in the "magic center" or "matching" space of students-in such an area, students will neither feel bored nor depressed.

Students should be encouraged to use language to organize their own thinking and talk about the tasks they are trying to accomplish. Dialogue and discussion are very important learning methods.

Fourthly, the enlightenment of cognitive development to teachers.

Cognitive development needs both the stimulation of physical environment and the promotion of social factors.

In order to develop thinking, children need mental, physical and language activities. They need to experiment, talk, describe, reflect, write and solve problems.

Teaching students what they already know is very boring for them, but trying to teach students what they are not ready for will be frustrating and ineffective for them.

Supporting challenging tasks is the key for students to devote themselves to learning without fear.