The emergence of private schools The private schools in China feudal society rose in the Spring and Autumn Period, with the largest scale and the greatest influence of Confucius. At that time, great changes took place in society, politics, economy and culture. Slavery collapsed, the feudal system gradually formed, and the Western Zhou Dynasty unified slavery country gradually declined. The original unified national education system in the Western Zhou Dynasty could not be maintained, and the ceremony collapsed. From "learning in the government" to "learning in the four foreigners" Because all the officials before the Western Zhou Dynasty had mastered certain cultural materials and had their own strengths, they needed to go to various vassal States to find jobs and find their way out, and the vassal States needed these intellectuals to serve them. Even the private affairs of ministers need literati to serve them in order to fight against the princes, and the way out for literati has gradually widened, so the "literati" class has emerged. The vassal States and the doctors of Qing Dynasty competed to cultivate scholars, so the cultivation of scholars became an urgent requirement. Under this condition, private schools came into being (see education in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period).
There are various schools in the scholar class, representing the interests of different classes or classes. The preface of Historical Records Taishigong, On the Essentials of Six Schools, puts forward six schools of Yin and Yang, Confucianism, Mohism, Fame, Legalism and Morality, and points out the strengths of each school. There are ten schools in Hanshu Yiwenzhi: Confucianism is disciplined because of Stuart's official position. Taoism, out of historians, records the truth of success or failure, survival and happiness, emphasizing self-restraint, inferiority and self-control. Yin and Yang family, out of their official position in charge of the four seasons of heaven and earth, stress astronomical meteorology and respect the people. Legalists pay attention to rewards and punishments for officials. Celebrities pay attention to fame and courtesy. Mohist school, in order to keep the Qing temple, thrifty, omnipotent, Shang Xian, is a ghost, unlucky, Shang Tong. Those who strategize, out of the official position of pedestrians, claim the right to make matters, and are ordered not to resign. A saint is an official, and he is on the same name as Confucianism, Mohism and France. Farmers, out of their official position of planting millet, sow 100 grains and persuade them to plant mulberry to have ample food and clothing. Novelists believe in gossip and hearsay because of their official positions. Confucius thought that although these were "trails", they also made sense.
In order to cultivate their own talents, schools publicize their opinions to the governor. Ask the governors to adopt it to expand their political power. Among them, Confucianism, Mohism, Taoism and Legalism have great influence. Academically, each faction has its own advantages and disadvantages, and has the function of opposing and complementing each other. Basically, the feudal emperors of past dynasties did not choose only one, but integrated the skills of each family to become emperors, serving to consolidate the feudal system and the rule of each dynasty. Kong Qiu, as a representative of conservative forces, was influenced by the demands of the emerging landlord class and various schools of thought, and founded the Confucian School. He looked forward to the ideal of "Great Harmony" in primitive society in China, and paid attention to moral education such as filial piety, benevolence and the golden mean. He sorted out the cultural heritage and became the main teaching material of the whole feudal society in China. In his private school, there were also students from poor families, which expanded the educational target. Legalists represent the emerging landlord forces, stress reform, land to the tiller, make positive progress and implement the rule of law. On behalf of the working people, especially those close to craftsmen, Mohism advocates that sages should abandon selfish interests, sacrifice themselves for others, restrain the strong and help the weak, and attach importance to science and technology. Mohism was once called "outstanding learning" with Confucianism, which was quite influential at that time. Taoism represents the declining aristocracy, advocates a passive and secluded outlook on life, opposes learning knowledge, resents rulers, and yearns for the social life of small countries and few people. These four schools have great influence and all have private schools. Legend has it that Deng before Confucius and Shao Zhengmao at the same time with Confucius founded the private school of Legalists to counter Confucianism, and said that Shao Zhengmao's private school had made Confucius' private school "three surpluses and three deficiencies". Legalists had great political influence in this period. Qin Mugong adopted the legalist thought and Shang Yang reformed, which made Qin gradually rich and strong. Confucianism had little political influence during this period. Confucius traveled around the world for 14 years (13 years), because he attached importance to kings and benevolent governance, and no vassal accepted his advice. However, he became a famous educator and trained a large number of ruling talents who mastered Confucian classics, which laid a good foundation for the rule of feudal dynasties after the Han Dynasty. Confucius has been respected by all generations, and he has become a crown-less "King Ping", a great sage and a "teacher for all generations". Confucianism attaches great importance to education, and most people have done educational work, so they have accumulated rich educational experience and made important contributions to ancient pedagogy in China, especially the private school run by Confucius, which has had an important impact on the cultural development of the Chinese nation.
By the Warring States Period (403 BC-22 BC1year), fundamental changes had taken place in China. The seven countries of Qin, Qi, Chu, Yan, Han, Zhao and Wei basically established the feudal private land system. In the unified war of the hegemony of the seven countries, "the country has no fixed friends and scholars have no fixed masters", the price of scholars' right to speak is getting higher and higher, the atmosphere of cultivating scholars is getting bigger and bigger, and private studies are more popular. There is a strong trend of "learning from the teacher", such as Monk's "following dozens of cars and hundreds of followers, delivering food for the princes" (Mencius Teng Wengong) and Tian Pian's "enlisting a thousand troops, only a hundred people" (Qi Ce). Xu Hang is a relatively small farm school with dozens of students. According to Mencius, the words of Yang Zhu and Mo Zhai spread all over the world at that time, showing that they had many followers. According to the saying that "everything goes wrong, foreign reserves say left", Zhao Xiangzi named two wise men of Zhongmou as "Chinese medicine" in one day, so half of Zhongmou sold his farm house to study literature and planned to be an official. As a result, the number of private schools has increased, and there has been a situation of "a hundred schools contend". Each school criticizes and influences each other, and at the same time argues with each other within the same school, forming a tributary. Such as Confucianism, Mencius and Xun Kuang. The former became an authentic Confucianism, while the latter produced a late legalist school with great influence. There is a "Jixia Xuegong" in Qi State (now north of Linzi County, Shandong Province). When Qi Xuanwang recruited hundreds of scholars from various schools, a hundred schools contended and everyone was awarded the title of "Doctor". Monk studied here, and Xun Kuang "sacrificed wine" here three times, which is a great event in the ancient history of education in China.
In the later period, Mohism paid attention to the study of natural science. Abandoned the early Mohist concepts of "heaven" and "ghost" and developed materialistic epistemology. The Mohist Classic represents the late Mohist thought, which contains a lot of natural science knowledge. In the later period, Mohism developed the logic of "Mohism" in the struggle to criticize the sophistry of famous artists. After the Qin and Han Dynasties, the influence of Mohism was less, because it was not suitable for the needs of feudal rulers at that time, and the rulers did not advocate it. Under the attack of Confucianism, the private school of Mohism gradually declined.
Taoism, represented by Lao Dan and Zhuang Zhou, has long occupied an important position in ancient China. Tai Shigong's preface to Historical Records, On Six Essentials, points out that Taoism can "adopt the goodness of Confucianism and Mohism because of the harmony of Yin and Yang, sum up the essence of law, keep pace with the times, conform to the changes of things, act according to customs, and do nothing ... Its technology is based on nothingness and uses conformity (nature). ..... Therefore, the saints are immortal and unchanging. " . History of Arts and Literature of Han Dynasty also points out that Taoism emphasizes "self-denial, courtesy and restraint", which can easily attract many people. During the Warring States period, Yang Zhu, Song Shuo, Shinto and other private schools between Taoism and Taoism developed, as well as celestial articles close to the "theory of homogeneous objects" of Zhuang and Zhou Dynasties. During the period of 1973, a large number of silk books were unearthed in Mawangdui No.3 Han Tomb in Changsha, including two versions of Laozi, which also shows that Taoism was taught and developed in the late Warring States period and even in the Han Dynasty. In the later period, Taoism absorbed many thoughts of legalists and military strategists, as well as some Confucian thoughts. They also advocate reunification and do not insist on the idea of "small country with few people"; Nor is it blindly opposed to the war, but only to the unjust war of "unreasonable mobilization and inappropriate cutting"; No longer insist on abandoning wisdom, but study, attach importance to knowledge and people, and learn well. The rulers of feudal society in China often adopted Confucianism and Legalism. Qin Shihuang successfully unified the six countries by simply adopting the legalist policy, but he also failed. It was not until the Han dynasty learned the lessons of the previous generation and implemented the Taoist "inaction" policy for decades that the economy developed. It was not until Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty accepted the Confucian proposal of "respecting Confucianism alone", but in fact, "the king is overbearing and miscellaneous" was the real policy of the Han Dynasty.
The legalist Guan Zi emphasized the "four dimensions" of courtesy, justice and shame for the country, and Zheng Zicai did not destroy rural schools, all of which were praised by Confucius. Li Kui is a student of Xia Zi, a disciple of Confucius. The legalist thought in the later period was based on Xun Kuang's "Theory of Rites". In legalism, there are not only Confucianism, but also the names of Taoism and famous scholars. Qin Shihuang adopted the policy of legalism, unilaterally emphasized criminal law and ignored education, only took law as a teacher and officials as a teacher, and prohibited private learning. This is one of the important reasons for the rapid demise of the Qin Dynasty. This lesson made the later emperors more vigilant and understood the truth of "enriching the country and strengthening the people, teaching first".
The development of private school and Confucian classics Although Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty announced that he would "oust hundreds of schools and respect Confucianism alone", he did not ban private school. Dr. imperial academy's Five Classics are all Confucian classics, but ancient classics can still be taught privately. Due to the growing private school, it won the overwhelming position of official school at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty. Some of them are called "Confucian scholars" because they are proficient in the study of classical Chinese and modern Chinese. Ma Rong and Zheng Xuan, for example, were famous "Confucian scholars" at that time, and there were thousands of students in private schools. The study of Confucian classics in Han Dynasty emphasized both "teachers" and "scholars". The doctor's degree of Imperial College must be strictly observed, otherwise it will not be selected as a doctor, or even if it becomes a doctor, it may be replaced once it is discovered. For example, Meng Xi, a doctor from imperial academy in the Western Han Dynasty, studied under Tian Wangsun's Book of Changes, and was not allowed to be a doctor in imperial academy for a long time because of changing the teaching method. Another example is that in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Zhang Xuan was worshipped as the "Spring and Autumn Emperor Yan Ram" doctor. Because he didn't obey the family law, he also talked about "The Spring and Autumn Period of Yanshi Ram". After the students reported that he had no knowledge, Emperor Guangwu had to replace him with a doctor. This style of study of "learning the law" and "being a scholar" is all cultivated by private schools. Confucius passed Xia, the son of the Spring and Autumn Period, to Ram Gao for the sake of "Ram Spring and Autumn Period", and then to Hu Musheng and Dong Zhongshu, and then to Meng Chuanzhi, Zu and Yan Anle, which became two factions. In the Han Dynasty, Thai students could learn from famous Confucian classics experts outside the school. Confucian classic teachers often stand on their own feet and give classes to their students. Therefore, the Han dynasty was the heyday of Confucian classics, and studying Confucian classics was the only way to be an official. There are too many students for the master of Confucian classics, and some of them can learn from the door. Also, as long as you hang your name, you can call it an apprentice, and you don't have to come to learn it yourself. Classical Chinese School teaches classics privately, emphasizing exegesis of famous things and textual research. Later generations named it "Sinology".
During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the gentry system was formed, but the class contradictions and ethnic contradictions were complicated, the world was divided and the monarch moved repeatedly. From the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the trend of "being an old official" became more and more fierce in the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and it became a "clear talk" or "metaphysics" for more than 300 years. However, the feudal ruling class did not give up Confucianism, and their "metaphysics" was actually a "new learning" combining Confucianism and Taoism. They interpret Confucian classics from a metaphysical point of view, and how to write morality and the Analects of Confucius. Wang Bi wrote Notes on Zhouyi and Laozi. The Seven Sages of Bamboo Forest in the Western Jin Dynasty (Ruan Ji, Ji Kang, Ruan Xian, Dan Tao, Xiang Xiu, Wang Rong and Liu Ling) highly praised Lao Zi and Zhuang Zi, especially Zhuangzi. During the Southern Liang Dynasty, Lao, Zhuang and Zhouyi were called "San Xuan". Metaphysics also promoted the development of Buddhism and Taoism. Zhi Dun and Hui Yuan, the eminent monks in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, are the most famous. Hui Yuan is not only proficient in metaphysics, but also good at Confucianism. He tried to integrate Confucianism and metaphysics with Buddhism, and gave lectures in Lushan Mountain for more than 30 years, which greatly developed Buddhism. In the struggle between Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, Buddhist philosophy gradually became China, and the development of Buddhism had a great influence on China's philosophy. The "knowledge of righteousness and sparseness" in Buddhist scriptures, the form of giving lectures in Zen forest, the rules and regulations of monasteries may all inspire and promote the Confucian knowledge of righteousness and sparseness, the establishment of the exquisite house of giving lectures in beautiful mountains and forests, and the emergence of the academy system later. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism struggled and merged, and the focus of Confucian classics and Sinology in Wei and Jin Dynasties turned to righteousness, which opened the way for the emergence and development of Neo-Confucianism in Song Dynasty.
The history of Confucian classics is the history of private schools in ancient China. Although official schools also played a certain role, private schools contributed the most to academic development. In particular, schools other than Confucianism have no place in official schools, and their survival depends entirely on private schools. Private schools contended in the pre-Qin period, but after the Han Dynasty, the number of students who could be accommodated in official schools was limited, and most of them were accommodated in private schools, forming many new schools. In the Western Han Dynasty, we studied the teachings of family heirloom, and in the Eastern Han Dynasty, we developed the study of China's ancient classics. Although the study of Confucian classics in Wei and Jin Dynasties declined in the middle period, it also had its own characteristics. For example, the Book of Changes annotated by Wang Bi is called "the only one in ancient and modern times". Private schools in the Jin Dynasty were also quite developed, with famous Confucian disciples gathering to give lectures, with hundreds or thousands of students. Such as Lei Cizong of Lushan Mountain, Liu of Tiantai Mountain? Confucianism was crowned at that time, and scholars and nobles had to leave their seats to receive it; Shen Dewei is a doctor in Imperial College London. He has to give lectures when he goes home. All these are examples. During the Southern Dynasties, official learning flourished and declined, and education relied on private learning. Although private schools were once banned in the Northern Wei Dynasty, the whole Northern Dynasty developed official schools in order to promote Sinicization, but private schools were also quite prosperous. For example, Xu Zunming has lectured for more than 20 years, with as many as 10,000 students before and after. Liu Xianzhi, Zhang Wugui and Li Xuan were all famous teachers and scholars at that time, and they all got together to give lectures.
During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, official schools flourished and private schools flourished. Wang Tong was a great Confucian in Sui Dynasty, and his disciples were all over the country, especially in Tang Dynasty. When Cao Xian was in the Sui Dynasty, he called his disciples to give lectures, often with hundreds of people. At that time, when he was an official or below, he also learned from them. Yan Shigu was famous for taking the Five Classics test, but before he became famous, he took the test of a professor. Kong was a professor before he became an official. Liu Zhuo attached great importance to internal affairs in the name of Confucianism, and specialized in writing and teaching after returning from Guo Zi. Yin works as a doctor in a university and goes home for private lectures every day. Han Yu studied with Du Guji, Liang Su and other ancient writers, and became a generation of literary giants, making contributions to the revival of ancient Chinese literature. His famous disciples Li Ao, Huangfushi and Zhang Ji were all celebrities at that time. When Liu Zongyuan was relegated to Liuzhou, Jiangling was a scholar and followed Zongyuan for thousands of miles. Anyone who passes by his door must be a celebrity.
Buddhist private schools flourished in the Tang Dynasty, and each temple was actually a Buddhist school. Master Xuanzang of Zhenguan and Master Yijing of Gaozong are very good at studying Buddhist scriptures. They pass Buddhism on to their disciples. Other famous Zen masters also teach Buddhism. For example, Zen master Yi Dao, a disciple of the Zen master, has been a teacher for ten years, forming his own school. "Scholars from all directions gathered under the seats." The prosperity of Zen began with these two masters. 1 Mazu, 139 disciple, each a patriarch. Buddhist temples have lecture halls and dormitories, and "regulations" have been formulated. They also pay attention to comments, questions and answers and discussions. In the Tang Dynasty, Buddhism produced Tiantai Sect, Zhizong Sect, Zen Sect and Huayan Sect. The independent development of Buddhist philosophy had a great influence on the development of Neo-Confucianism and academies in Song and Ming Dynasties.
During the Five Dynasties, official learning was underdeveloped and private learning flourished. For example, in the early Song Dynasty, there were millions of private schools run by the descendants of Zhao in the former Shu, and many famous Confucian secluded resorts set up schools, fine houses and academies. One of the most famous is Bailudong Academy, which was founded in 940 in the fourth year of Shengyuan in the Southern Tang Dynasty. Its owner is Li.
The relationship between academy and Neo-Confucianism The history of academy is an important aspect of private school in the history of ancient education in China. It has great potential, long time and great influence. At first, the college was private, and later it was partly controlled by the government. As a gathering of disciples to give lectures, the academy began in the Five Dynasties. At the beginning of Song and Xing Dynasties, the most famous academies were Bailudong, Shigu, Yingtianfu and Yuelu. Later, the academy surpassed the state and county schools. There were many academies in the Southern Song Dynasty. The prosperity of the academy is closely related to the lectures of Neo-Confucianism. For example, Yuelu Academy in Southern Song Dynasty was the place where Zhang Qian and Zhu gave lectures, and Bailudong was the place where Zhu gave lectures. The famous "Learning Rules of Bailudong Academy" was initiated by Zhu and followed by other academies. Lize Academy is where Lu Bogong gives lectures, and Xiangshan Academy is where Lu Jiuyuan gives lectures. There are also many academies to commemorate the masters of Neo-Confucianism, such as Ziyang Academy and Kaoting Academy, which are all in memory of Zhu. Lianxi Academy commemorates Zhou Dunyi and Guishan Academy commemorates Shi Yang. The Yuan Dynasty controlled the academy, and the Ming Dynasty destroyed it four times, all for fear of discussing politics and giving lectures freely. Zhang destroyed as many as 64 academies. Donglin Academy is the place where Shi Yang gives lectures. When Gu Xiancheng, Gao Panlong and other scholars gave lectures in the academy, the scholar-officials with Taoist mentality retreated to the forest farm one after another, and the news came out, but the school could not keep it. It can be seen that the Lindong Academy at that time had become the base for some intellectuals who opposed eunuch Wei Zhongxian's control of state affairs to publish "Talking Talks", which was hated by the big landlord establishment and led to party disaster.
Neo-Confucianism in Song and Ming Dynasties can be roughly divided into two schools: Cheng and Zhu's objective idealism and Lu and Wang's subjective idealism. Each school has its own mentoring relationship, with the academy as the main one. The common purpose of the two schools is to cultivate Confucian classics and respect Confucius and Mencius, but the former advocates elucidation first and the latter advocates understanding first; The latter accused the former of being fragmented, while the former accused the latter of being too simple. The former is "seeking knowledge through the Tao" and the latter is "respecting morality". The encounter between Zhu and Lu Xiangshan in 1 175 is very famous in history. Although they held their own opinions, they also expressed their admiration for each other. Even after school, there is a tendency to reconcile Zhu and Lu. 1 18 1 year, Zhu invited Lu Xiangshan to the lecture hall of Bailudong Academy, and the topic was "Gentleman's righteousness, villain's benefit". After the lecture, Zhu Dajia appreciated that the scholar was terminally ill and said, "Let's stay with all the students and don't forget Mr. Lu's teachings." In Ming Dynasty, Wang Shouren became the king of Lu School after Lu Xiangshan, stressing conscience and integrating knowledge with practice, which had great influence on later generations and Japan.
In teaching, the academy has made great contributions, such as paying attention to self-study and discussion; From the organizational point of view, there are learning rules or teaching contracts, which indicate the purposes, methods and rules that should be observed together in life. In modern times, Mao Zedong founded Hunan Self-study University and held farmers' workshops, which absorbed a lot of experience from the academy.
In ancient China, private schools were responsible for the primary education of private schools, enlightenment, Confucian classics and science and technology education. In the Han dynasty, Mongolian studies were generally called "library" or "learning library", teachers were called "calligraphers" and teaching materials were "word books". Children enter school at the age of 8 or 9. Since the Han Dynasty, there have been many "word books" of Mongolian studies. Primary school is mainly literate. After reading the word book, you can read the Book of Filial Piety and The Analects of Confucius. The Han dynasty began to create "Yi Xue". Yang Ren, the magistrate of Shifang County, Sichuan Province, advised his children to go to school because of the prevalence of Yi-ology. From now on, all the children from poor families who attend school with the funds raised or shared by clans are called "Yi Xue", which has always existed in the feudal society of China. During the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties, there were such private schools in primary schools, including township schools, primary schools, winter schools and village schools. Private schools for older and more advanced students have names such as "classroom" and "college". As for home schools, they are run by wealthy families and employ famous teachers to teach their children or relatives. Cheng's Chronology of Cheng's Home School is a famous home school teaching plan in the early Yuan Dynasty.
Private schools also have a lot to do with the development of science and technology. Many great scientists are self-taught, passed down from generation to generation, taught by masters or studied by friends. China's official science and technology education didn't have a formal specialized school until the Tang Dynasty, and before that, it had accumulated rich scientific research achievements. For example, Zhang Heng studied in imperial academy in the Eastern Han Dynasty. Inspired by Yang Xiong's Xuan Jing, he went to school with imperial academy's friend Cui Yuan and became a great astronomer and mathematician. In the Southern Dynasties, Zu Chongzhi passed on the family line to become a great calendar mathematician, and his son Xuan became an excellent mathematician. On the one hand, Li Shizhen, a famous Chinese medicine practitioner in Ming Dynasty, was taught by his father, and then spent his whole life (30 years) consulting more than 800 doctors, and went to various provinces extensively to investigate and collect data. Only at the age of 70 did he compile a famous work, Compendium of Materia Medica. His medical skills were inherited by his son's founder and students' favorite physique. Song, a scientist in the late Ming Dynasty, summed up the production experience of working people in China and wrote a masterpiece "Heavenly Creations". Huang Daopo teaches cliff quilt weaving privately, and teaches people to make cotton and quilt cover. More than 65,438+0,000 people in her hometown live on it. This is another private school close to the nature of workers' technical school.
philology
Mao, et al. History of Ancient Education in China, People's Education Press, Beijing, 1979.
Essays on China's scientific and technological inventions and figures, Life, Reading and New Knowledge Joint Publishing Company, Beijing, 1956.