The earliest universities were established in Italy, France and Britain in the12nd century. Among them, Bologna University, Salenitana University and Paris University are representative and influential. The University of Bologna is famous for studying law. At that time, Bologna was located in the commercial center of Europe, Asia and Africa, where businessmen gathered, trade disputes occurred from time to time, commercial lawsuits continued, and legal talents were urgently needed. In addition, Italian scholars joined hands with the Pope to fight against the holy Roman Empire, seek the independence and rights of the city, and strengthen the study of Roman law, and civil law gradually became an independent discipline. Moreover, in order to solve the contradiction between city authorities and feudal lords, it stimulated the development of law. At that time, the famous jurist Ainarus studied and lectured here, attracting many talented scholars and young people. By the beginning of13rd century, there were more than 5,000 students in the University of Bologna, and the teaching content was increasingly rich. 13 16 added medicine, 1360 added theology. University of Salernitana, founded at the beginning of 1 1 century, was originally a medical school. Salenitana is a famous convalescent resort along the Mediterranean coast, with a good foundation in traditional medicine, which attracts dignitaries to recuperate here. 165438+At the beginning of the 20th century, a Jewish doctor, Afrikano, came here to give lectures, which made the eastern and western medicine blend here and promoted the development of medicine. The University of Salernitana has gradually become the medical center and medical research center in Europe. It is an earlier branch school in the west. The University of Paris was developed from the then Notre Dame Church School. From 1 108 to 1 139, Abela, a famous French scholastic philosopher and an important representative of early nominalism, had a long debate with realism here, and scholars and young people poured in, making this school famous. The University of Paris is famous for its theological research. At its peak, there were 50 thousand students, which became a model of western European universities at that time. Under the influence of these three universities, many universities were established in western Europe from13rd century to14th century. Such as the famous Oxford University (1 168) and Cambridge University (1209); University of Padua in Italy (1222), University of Naples (1224), University of Alegre (1355); University of Toulouse, France (1230); University of Valencia, Spain (1212); University of Lisbon, Portugal (1290); Prague University in the Holy Roman Empire (1348) and so on. /kloc-22 universities were added in Europe in 0/400, about 80 in 0/500, and the total number of universities in 0/05 was 1600. The rise of medieval universities has far-reaching significance in the history of education, which greatly promoted the prosperity of medieval culture in western Europe, not only laid the foundation for modern universities, but also had an important impact on modern science.
At first, the courses in medieval universities were mainly single subjects. From 1 1 century to13rd century, as Europeans translated a large number of Greek and Indian scientific works and Arabs' own works into Latin, especially from 1200 to 1255, the complete works of Aristotle were discovered and translated into Latin, and soon entered universities. At that time, the basics of logic, physics, cosmology and mathematics had become the main contents of the course, and higher education was mainly based on logic and science. The spread of Aristotle's works in universities caused panic and anger in the church. From 12 10 to 123 1, the Pope banned reading and teaching Aristotle's natural philosophy works in Paris University for three times. However, the pope's ban is like a drop in the ocean. By 1255, that is, 45 years after the promulgation of the Pope's ban, all the available works of Aristotle have been included in the textbook catalogue of the lecture course of Paris University. But at Oxford University at that time, Aristotle's works could always be taught and studied without restriction.
In the process of studying ancient Greek works saturated with Arab traditions, medieval universities did a lot of annotation work. These comments almost contain most scientific concepts, theories and debates repeatedly discussed by the scientific community in the following centuries.
The rise of universities in the Middle Ages changed the education system in the West, formed a professional intellectual layer that dominated western culture, and created a group of philosophers-theologians, who brought Christianity into the sea of rationality, especially shaped the thinking habits of Europeans and formed an immortal academic tradition in the West.
The teaching methods of medieval universities generally include two links: teaching and debate. Teaching refers to reading the designated teaching materials, which are explained by teachers. There are two kinds of debates, one is "question debate" in class, and the other is "free debate" held in public places after class. "Question debate" usually begins with the argument given by the teacher, and he or his students quote the classics to give a negative answer; Then, the teaching assistant positively demonstrates this argument and answers the rebuttal; Students or teachers can put forward new refutations and doubts about the arguments of teaching assistants; After repeated questions and answers, arguments and refutations, the teacher finally came to the conclusion whether the original argument was established. This kind of debate belongs to formal debate and is often held. "Free debate" is an informal debate, and participants can raise any questions for discussion. This argument later evolved into a way of cultural entertainment in universities. Whether it is a formal debate or an informal debate, its purpose is to cultivate agile thinking ability and practice reasoning methods.
For centuries, the educated classes in Europe have been receiving strict and precise training in the art of logical thinking. Whitehead, a modern British philosopher and mathematician, believes that the birth of modern science would be impossible if western thoughts were not prepared for centuries of rational training in order to explore the natural order with cosmic rationality or human wisdom. Therefore, the critical rationality and endless spirit of exploration in the West did not appear in the Renaissance in the15th century, as people generally think. The real turning point was in the university and city era three centuries ago. Starting from Abraham and John of Salisbury, the hobby of debating thinking and philosophical thinking spirit arose. Higher-level research is guided by logical debate. Debate in college classes and free debate in public places not only improve the intelligence agility and the accuracy of thinking, but also cultivate the critical spirit and methodological doubts, which is also the reason why western culture and modern science have risen to a great extent.
In the Middle Ages, especially in the13rd century and14th century, the most active and influential academic thoughts were Paris University and Oxford University, which, as representatives, formed different academic characteristics. Paris University is the international center of theology-philosophy, and its dialectical style pursues the clarity and certainty of thought by argumentation and discrimination. In the past three centuries, it has attracted not only a large number of students from all over the world, but also great scholars such as Abela, John of Salisbury, Albert the Great, Siegel of brabant, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, roger bacon, Dunce Scotus, william okan, etc., and almost formed a1/kloc-0. And these great scholars must have been created by the great teachers in a stirring atmosphere. Scholars in Oxford University pay more attention to natural philosophy and empirical science, and roger bacon, who first put forward the concept of "experimental science", is the most important representative.
The landlord appreciates ~ ~ ~