The military system of Manchu guard camp in Zhenglan Banner —— The Qing Dynasty generally experienced three stages: the Eight Banners green camp system, the Brave Camp system and the modern military system, among which the Eight Banners green camp belonged to the national regular army; Yong ying was originally a temporary arm to assist the regular army. After the rise of Xiang Army and Huai Army in the late Qing Dynasty, Yong ying changed from auxiliary to main force. Modern military system mainly refers to the new army in the late Qing Dynasty. In the early and middle period of Qing Dynasty, the Eight Banners and green camp were the main armed forces to maintain the rule of the Qing Empire. But by the middle of the Qing Dynasty, the Eight Banners were so corrupt that they could not stand the first world war. /kloc-in the 9th century, green camp followed the footsteps of the Eight Banners, and its decline overlapped. Especially in suppressing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom movement, green camp was invincible and basically lost its fighting function. 1860, Jiangnan Daying was completely annihilated, marking the end of the era when green camp was the main armed force of the Qing army, and it was replaced by Xiang Huaiyong Daying. Soldiers belong to the army, and courage belongs to the brave camp, such as Xiang Huai. Yong camp's power is constantly expanding, while green camp, as a regular army of the Qing army, is weakened and devastated. The decline of the regular army of the imperial court, with the local forces and civilian armed forces taking over, is a dangerous signal to the Qing Dynasty, which is the result that no ruler wants to see. In addition, the western powers stepped up their aggression, but the Qing dynasty did not have a division that could defend the enemy, which led to humiliation and humiliation, which the rulers of the Qing dynasty could not bear. In view of the above two reasons, the Qing court decided to vigorously rectify green camp in order to enhance green camp's fighting capacity and restore its original dominant position. For the Qing court, the soldiers in green camp are hereditary, and the generals are selected by the court (the soldiers are indigenous and will be supplemented by civil servants). The power of the army is in the hands of the Ministry of War, and there will be no return of soldiers from Xiang Huaiyong Camp, so politics is very reliable. Once green camp rises, it can contain or even suppress the brave camp of Xiang and Huai armies, contain local forces, balance internal and external forces, strengthen centralization, resist foreign humiliation and consolidate national defense. The rise of Hunan 186 1 year (the eleventh year of Xianfeng), the emperor said in the imperial edict: since the outbreak of the war, Yongding was levied because of the shortage of officers and men everywhere. At present, officers and men are often absent from their posts in military camps all over the country, but Yong Ding is frequently recruited. Serenade has a lot of courage and cannot but attract people's attention ... The meaning of Emperor Xianfeng is obvious: there are fewer regular troops and more brave battalions. The imperial court was worried that after the war, Yongding would be partially demobilized and the rest would join the regular army. This is the policy of "taking courage as a soldier". The core of this policy is to suppress Yong Ying, support green camp, disperse the elite soldiers of Yong Ying, join green camp, and enhance green camp's combat effectiveness. However, judging from the results, the "volunteer army" is obviously the wishful thinking of Emperor Xianfeng, which is difficult to implement. First of all, the war is still going on, the brave camp is still the main force, and the brave camp is cut, which is tantamount to self-destruction; Secondly, the fundamental reason for green camp's weakness is the defect of the system. A few elite brave men were released, and they were assimilated by the soldier of fortune in a few days, which was useless; Finally, Yongying is well paid and promoted quickly. Colleagues of officials are villagers with strong cohesion, and those who have entered Yongying disdain to go to green camp. The policy of "being brave as a soldier" doesn't work, and the Qing court needs to find another way to punish green camp. This way is to build a training army. 2 1863 (two years of Tongzhi) In the late Qing army, Xue Huan, assistant minister of Libu, wrote to the Qing court. In the memorial, Xue Huan thinks that the western powers are too threatening to the Qing Dynasty. Every time the negotiations come to a deadlock, the powers use force to intimidate and force the court to yield. Now the imperial court should prepare for a rainy day and set up four towns in Zhili, and each town will train 10,000 soldiers to defend the capital. Training is a good thing, but training needs a lot of money. where is the money to come from? The Qing court asked Xue Huan to hand over the memorial to the Ministry of Civil Affairs for discussion. After research, the Ministry of Civil Affairs proposed that 18 provinces should share the training expenses. However, all provinces are short of money, so it is wishful thinking to ask them to pay for training in Zhili. Mao Hongbin, governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, opposed this proposal, saying that instead of setting up four towns, it is better to train green camp with Li Anqi, that is, to deploy officers and men from green camp in the Eight Banners to strengthen training, so that the provinces don't have to pay any more. The Qing court handed the memorials of Xue Huan and Mao Hongbin to Liu Changyou, the governor of Zhili and the general of Hunan, and asked him to co-ordinate. Liu Changyou combined the idea of training with the imperial court's rectification of green camp, and combined with his own experience in commanding the Xiang army, put forward his own idea: dispatching the best soldiers in green camp, and recruiting some brave soldiers to form the "training" Seventh Army, and adopting the Xiang military camp system. In terms of salary, these people were originally from green camp, but now they only need a small part of the provincial assistance. This method proposed by Liu Changyou almost comprehensively considers the interests of all parties and is a typical product of mutual compromise. Therefore, it is quite to the taste of the Qing court. Except for Hunan military camp system, other points were basically recognized by the Qing court, and the great cause of military training was established. Since then, the military training in Zhili has been in the charge of Liu Changyou, Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, which has developed well and can be called a model of military training. Other provinces followed Zhili's example to set up military training, but the Qing court was unable to provide funds for the establishment of military training in the provinces, and naturally it was impossible to formulate a unified national military training system, so local governors had to act on their own. Therefore, the effect of military training construction in different provinces is uneven. Therefore, we discuss whether Zhili is the main training ground. The military training in Zhili is specifically under the responsibility of the governor of Zhili, and its central competent department is the Prime Minister's yamen, so the military training system is also deeply influenced by the Prime Minister's yamen. 1866, at the Prime Minister's yamen, Wang? Under the auspices of Wen Xiang, the inpatient department, Ministry of War and Zhili Governor Liu Changyou discussed and drafted Chapter 15 of Jifu Training Camp Regulations. With the approval of the Qing court, Zhili Training Army had a formal charter. The main contents of "Regulations on Training Camp in Kyrgyzstan" promulgated by the government office of the Prime Minister are as follows: 1, salary stamp of the camp system. Training became an independent army and six armies were formed. Each army has 5 battalions, each with 500 people, and the whole army 15000 people. Infantry, artillery and cavalry of each battalion are mixed; The salary will be paid beyond 70% of green camp's basic salary, ranging from 224 yuan per person per month from infantry to army commanders to 180 yuan. 2. Weapons and equipment. The training troops are mixed with cold and hot weapons. Each battalion is equipped with 16 mountain guns, 4 western fireworks, 48 step guns, 165, 438+02 shotguns, 32 carbines and 184 broadswords, and the utilization rate of firearms reaches 60%. 3. Military training. Ideological education, instilling loyalty to the monarch and patriotism, being brave and good at fighting, abiding by discipline and law, being honest and devoted to public service, fighting skills, practicing ordnance, and the array method is similar to that of Xiang Army. Generally speaking, compared with decadent green camp, army training has made great progress: it has changed the disadvantages of scattered garrison, insufficient posts and high salaries in green camp, raised the salaries of officers and men, improved the morale of the army, increased the proportion of hot weapons, and improved its combat effectiveness compared with green camp. 1867, Liu Changyou was dismissed after failing to suppress the Liu Zhang uprising in Cangzhou, and his military training was at a standstill. After a brief handover of official documents, Zeng Guofan became the governor of Zhili in 1868. When Zeng Guofan became the governor of Zhili, it was a critical moment for China and foreign countries to amend the treaty. The Qing court asked Zeng Guofan to reform training, hoping to turn weakness into strength, reorganize military power and defend the Qing Dynasty. After receiving the will, Zeng Guofan carried out drastic reforms in training. The main points are as follows: 1, simplify the camp rules, and simplify the original 150 rules into several. 2, enhance the power of military officers, camp officers have the final say, and neither commanders nor governors can remotely control their power. 3, the choice of soldiers, no longer by green camp is responsible for the selection, but by the battalion officers themselves from green camp. 4. Soldiers elected to the training army will no longer receive the basic salary of green camp, but will be paid by the training army. In addition, Zeng Guofan also adjusted the salary system of training camp: canceling the establishment of "military" level and introducing long-term system, so that "horse stance just look" is no longer mixed and set up separately; To raise the salary of officers and men, the salary of Xiang army is second to none in China. Although the salary of training is higher than that of green camp, it is far less than that of Xiang. Zeng Guofan raised the salary of training to the level close to that of Xiang army. Reduce the number of firearms, so as to achieve 50% hot weapons and 50% cold weapons (the proportion of firearms and equipment in Xiang Army is 4 1%). The core of Zeng Guofan's reform is to transform military training with the brave battalion system, which is actually the same as the training of Xiang Army in the past. In Zeng Guofan's view, Xiang's brave camp system is a panacea for improving the combat effectiveness of training troops, which stems from his superstition of Xiang's system. Zeng Guofan's practice of reforming the army with brave battalion system is in danger of turning the state-owned army into a private army. His practice was opposed by the Ministry of War, but the Qing court did not interfere too much. There are four reasons for accommodating Zeng Guofan: the practice of the army has been ineffective for a long time, and there is no better way for the Qing court; Judging from past experience, Zeng Guofan can be disciplined and trustworthy; From the previous practice, the brave camp system is indeed more advanced than the green camp system. The most important point is that the Qing court was convinced that the Yong camp system would not change the green camp attribute of the training army: the officers of the training army were selected by the Ministry of War, the salaries of the training army were paid by the inpatient department, and the personnel power and financial power were in the central government, so the central government mastered the military power of the training army. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the army practiced foreign guns for four years (1870). Zeng Guofan resigned because of the Tianjin religious plan, and Li Hongzhang took over as the governor of Zhili. During his 20-year career as governor of Zhili, Li Hongzhang strongly supported military training for various reasons. Li Hongzhang followed Zeng Guofan's military training rules, vigorously expanded the scale of military training, and promoted the modernization of military training, which made military training develop by leaps and bounds. Later, during the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and Eight-Nation Alliance period, Huai Lian's army often appeared, referring to the Zhili army represented by Huai Army and Lian Army. It can be seen that Lian Jun still had a certain sense of existence in the late Qing Dynasty. 1873, according to the training regulations, Li Hongzhang reorganized more than 3,000 foreign gun teams that Chonghou had trained in Tianjin before, so that the two armies were merged into one. After reorganization, this part was deployed in Tianjin, Dagu and Beitang. Later, Li Hongzhang set up a training army in Haiphong, Tianjin, and put all the original officers and men of Haikou Fort, Tongshui Town, Daguhui and Yunziying cavalry under the training army to train Zhili. By 1885, there were more than14,000 soldiers in Zhili towns, and more than 6,000 soldiers stationed in Tianjin, totaling more than 20,000 people. As we all know, Li Hongzhang, an artillery in the late Qing Dynasty, was superstitious about western advanced weapons. His weapons and equipment of Huai Army were second to none in the country and not very backward in the world. After Li Hongzhang took over the training of Zhili Army, he began to upgrade the weapons, equipment and tactics of army training according to the standards of Huai Army. On the one hand, he ordered foreign guns to equip the battalions. To this end, Li Hongzhang did not hesitate to invest one-third of Zhili's fiscal revenue in training. On the other hand, he took officers of the Huai Army to conduct firearms training and modern array drills for the training troops. 1885 or so, the training army has completed the transition from front-bore guns to rear-bore guns. Taking Zhili as a model, the Qing court promoted military training throughout the country. 19 In the mid-1980s, 20 provinces in China successively trained troops, but the effects of training troops in different provinces were different. Zhili, Guizhou, Yunnan and Heilongjiang all had a scale of over 10,000 people. The smallest Hunan has only 1000 people. In terms of weapons and equipment, the old and the new are mixed. Green camp gradually withdrew from the historical stage after military training was widely promoted in the country in the late Qing Dynasty. Since then, Lian Jun has become a regular field army in charge of repression, while green camp's elite troops have been drawn out, and their fighting capacity has further shrunk, so they can only maintain local public order. Generally speaking, military training is quite effective in dealing with domestic rebellion. For example, in 189 1 year, Ye Zhichao and Nie Shicheng led troops to train in Gubeikou and Lutai, and when they suppressed the sectarian uprising in Jehol at that time, they were almost crushed all the way. The insurgents equipped with primitive weapons are no match for the Qing army equipped with modern weapons. This also shows that with the increasing scientific and technological content of weapons and equipment, the gap between the rebels and the official military equipment is getting bigger and bigger, and the possibility of successful peasant uprising is almost gone. In terms of foreign wars, only the Zhili company took part in the Sino-Japanese War, but other provinces could not get it. The performance of the Zhili company in the war was also very general, which is also very understandable. As the pillar of the empire, the Huai army is still so rubbish, but what can it do if its strength is not as good as that of the Lian army? The Japanese War in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 was the touchstone to test the combat effectiveness of the army. Judging from the results, the military training construction in the late Qing Dynasty was a failure. Although green camp's fighting capacity was improved to a certain extent, it could not balance the brave battalion under the local governor, nor could it shoulder the heavy responsibility of national defense in the Qing Dynasty, and both theory and practice failed. 1894- 1895 during the first world war, the training troops of the Huai army were all vulnerable to the first world war. The Qing court completely lost confidence in the fighting capacity of the domestic army, and decided to reduce training and training, and at the same time incorporated and trained a new type of army directly controlled by the court, which was later. Since 1895, the new army in the late Qing dynasty, all provinces have cut back and eliminated training. After the signing of the "Xin Chou Treaty", the Qing court ordered the provinces to eliminate the defense forces (Yong ying), training troops and green camp respectively, and reorganized them into standing, continuous reserve and patrol forces. At this point, nearly 40 years of military training basically withdrew from the historical stage in the late Qing Dynasty. References Li and Xiao: Zhili Governor and Zhili Military Training in the Late Qing Dynasty; Pi Mingyong: Research on Military Training in the Late Qing Dynasty: Ji Manhong: On the reasons for the establishment of military training in the Qing Dynasty: Huang: Mutual infiltration between green camp and Yong Ying-defending the army and training the military system: the rise and fall history of Wu Yijun in the late Qing Dynasty: ten years of self-improvement through training is not a crime of war.