First, the political and cultural influence of American society on public schools.
The traditional system of American government and the influence of local political culture determine the complex relationship between education policy and schools. This essentially includes all kinds of complicated relationships among the federal government, states and localities.
According to the traditional American system, the federal government actually has no constitutional obligation to private and public schools. Because the federal constitution stipulates that the right to education is authorized to the state government. The heads of public education at the state level or the principals of local schools are opposed to the federal government's education policy playing a powerful role in public schools. However, in recent years, although the federal government's funding for schools is less than 6%, its influence on public schools has increased year by year. The federal government influences the interests of women, parents, teachers and minority students in different regions through national institutions (such as the National Science Foundation of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labor) or curriculum reform. It can be seen that any school in the United States can be influenced by the federal government's education policy to varying degrees.
However, the state government remains the core of American education policy. Historically, the state government authorized the power of public schools to local school districts, and this kind of local education autonomy formed a tradition. So Americans often think that public education is controlled and managed by local school districts. At the beginning of this century, there were about 6.5438+0.5 million public school districts in the United States, and now there are only 6.5438+0.5 million public school districts. Many school districts disappeared because the state government gradually strengthened its education policy, which made many primary school districts merged into university districts.
If we look back, in the early days of American public education, local school districts were the core of American education policy, not the state government. At first, people agreed that public schools should be managed by locally elected educational groups. This idea first appeared in the northeastern United States at the end of 18, and soon spread all over the country. In the next forty or fifty years, public schools will gradually be controlled by local institutions. From 1830 to 1860, when the United States was called the "public school movement", laws and regulations were produced in the state constitution, and a public education system that could be controlled by the federal government and funded by the state government was gradually built through laws and regulations. It is controlled from top to bottom by state legislatures and educational institutions. From 1830 to 1870, each state has carried out legal reforms one after another, transferring the main legal power of public schools from local governments to state governments.
However, due to the existence and influence of local culture and traditional management methods, most States still hand over most of the power of school operation to local elected school committees. Therefore, historically, American public schools have been managed by local school districts. The basic rights exercised by each school district include education funds, curriculum setting, hiring teachers, students' examination procedures, and school-age children's admission.
Therefore, American educational policy makers and school reformers must deal with the complex relationship between 49 state governments (Hawaii has a school district),110/000 schools and 48 million students. This makes the education reform at the federal government and even at the state level more difficult. Due to the special historical reason of American education, the development of American schools has both advantages and disadvantages. Its advantage lies in encouraging local and citizens to participate in school management, easily combining schools with local needs and promoting school democracy.
Its negative effect and influence lies in that it only emphasizes the localization of education and only reflects or represents the interests of local school Committee administrators, teachers, citizens and nationalities. Therefore, it is easy to form some local prejudices and even compete with the interests of most people. From this perspective, the complete localization of education is undoubtedly a double-edged sword.
It is very important to understand the history and characteristics of American education. It can help you understand the key problems in American education and why even the current education reform movement is unable to solve these problems.
The tradition of local control of public schools in the United States began in the late18th century. Without the influence of the philosophy of natural forces. The philosophy of natural forces holds that people have unique potential of mind, body, spirit and will from birth. Therefore, people's right to enjoy knowledge is inalienable, and everyone has the right to acquire knowledge. However, when American public education was established at the end of 18, even native Indians were regarded as a discriminated nation in law and politics. From the beginning, most state and local governments did not agree that African Americans and American Indians had the inalienable right to education. They always believed that only those races with first-class citizenship had the inalienable right to enter public schools. It was not until 30 years later that the state fundamentally changed this unequal custom through laws and other forms. However, this issue has not been completely changed through legislation.
In Jona than Kozol's latest book, Savage Inequality, many Americans are once again forced to face the racial and class inequality in public education fairly. Therefore, running a school in the United States is not necessarily a democratic practice, but it often means an anti-democratic tradition.
At present, the reform of American public schools begins at the federal level. From 65438 to 0983, the Reagan administration issued an encouraging report on American public education, namely "The Nation is at stake: the necessity of educational reform". This report was written by a special committee headed by the then Minister of Education. This report was adopted by Reagan in a speech. This report claims that there are serious problems in American education, and that the educational foundation of American society is threatening the future of our country and people. It is claimed that American schools have failed in cultivating elite talents, and schools are pushing the whole country to a "very dangerous situation". In the aspect of educational failure, three main problems are discussed: ① the decline of students' academic performance in the whole country; ② American students rank last in the comparative study of academic performance; American schools have failed to cultivate a global workforce that can solve various problems.
Later, through many detailed investigations and analysis, it was proved that the academic performance of American students did not decline, and the academic performance of students in American high schools and universities was as good as before or slightly better than before. A newly compiled data released by the US Bureau of Investigation in March 1997 shows that the education level of Americans is higher than before. From 65438 to 0995, 82% of Americans over the age of 25 completed high school education, and 23% obtained a bachelor's degree or higher. These two figures are the highest in American history. As for the quality of American labor force, it is true and instructive to accuse schools of not cultivating high-quality labor force when saving. However, even when the economy recovered, the school did not make great progress in this respect.
The Reagan administration's report on American schools is the most worthy of analysis. It came into being when the country was in an economic crisis, which made Americans feel that their future and the future of the country were threatened. However, the argument that the country is in danger is not enough to prove the academic performance of American students. Some of these views are just means of struggle between rival political parties. Concerned about the serious problems in the national economy, political and business leaders blamed these problems on the quality of American public schools, so they launched a school reform movement in every state. To be exact, the really serious problems in American schools are not necessarily those mentioned in National Security. Historically, American schools have always been scapegoats for economic and political failures, as well as social vices of crime and riots in which schools will never participate.
Two. Reform policy at the federal level
The school reform movement initiated by the federal government has formulated two basic strategies. First of all, Congress has set a goal for the year 2000: American education regulations. This law, which has been approved by Clinton and will soon become law, is full of expectations for the national education curriculum and students' performance standards. In other words, it is suggested that all 50 states should set up courses and fulfill standards spontaneously. The government regards the "Year 2000 Goal" as the cornerstone of federal support for changing schools and clubs. It is ready to approve 65,438+6,000 schools with a total allocation of 620 million US dollars to implement this reform goal. This regulation clearly points out that it is voluntary for schools to implement national standards. And strengthen the supervision of state and local school districts through funding. The main goal is to help students with poor grades in the poorest school districts reach the same learning standards as those with good grades in relatively developed areas. Especially in rural areas where low-income and minority students account for a large proportion, this fund will become the main part of primary and secondary school budgets. According to the education regulations of the federal government, those states that are unwilling to adopt the prescribed curriculum and meet the standards will undoubtedly face the danger of losing their fund shares.
If the proposal of this regulation successfully changes the curriculum of primary and secondary schools and meets the standards of primary and secondary schools, then the federal funds and methods are likely to be transferred to strengthen the powerful measures of the federal government to reform local schools-establishing national courses and meeting the standards. Through this measure, we can change the traditional practice of too decentralized school power in the United States. However, Congress may not agree to this bill on the examination regulations for primary and secondary schools. But the introduction of this bill can be seen as a symbol of the federal government's efforts to adjust American schools.
Another national strategy, perhaps the most important strategy of American public education reform, is the invention of charter schools. Charter schools are public schools organized by signing contracts between schools and the government. The contract specifies the management terms of the charter school and the goals of students' academic performance. In particular, it is stipulated that charter schools can not follow local and state school rules, but can hire their own faculty and decide their own courses. 1994, the federal education law passed and stipulated the Charter School Regulations. The federal government tries to set a new example and establish a new management model for public schools by establishing charter schools.
Now, charter schools are increasing rapidly in the United States. Five years ago, there were only 1 charter schools in the United States. Today, there are over 400. At present, half of the states have enacted laws on charter schools. To support the efforts of the states, the Clinton administration, together with Congress, is expanding the start-up fund for charter schools. It is estimated that more than 3,000 charter schools will be established in the next few years. The federal government will adjust and improve the model of local public schools by promoting charter schools nationwide. This strategy interweaves the federal regulations on charter schools with the traditional local management model, which makes the school reform difficult and has great potential.
Three. School reform at the state level
Since the mid-1980s, the number and types of school courses in 45 states in the United States have changed greatly. Mathematics and science have been added to the curriculum of almost all schools, and the best example of school reform at the state level is South Carolina. 1984, then Governor Coral Richard Riley (now US Secretary of Education) signed the Regulations on Improving the Quality of Education into law. This regulation includes: improving students' academic ability, strengthening students' discipline, effectively cultivating talented students and providing better vocational training for disabled students, and emphasizing the requirement to reduce the teacher-student ratio. In order to improve students' academic performance and attract outstanding talents to join the teaching industry, all potential principals must pass a new evaluation institution.
The research on the effect of the reform in South Carolina shows that the reform has really played a positive role in improving students' academic performance. The proportion of students who meet the basic skills assessment standards has increased. In the basic skills test in California, students' ability is gradually improving, and the academic performance of low-income and minority students has also improved. During the period from 1984 to 1989, the students' grades in South Carolina increased the fastest. On the other hand, teachers in South Carolina generally feel severe mental exhaustion and fatigue.
However, the survey of compulsory education reform shows that students in many schools are still influenced by local culture. This influence can easily play a negative role in the educational reform under the instruction of the state.
Fourth, the private management of public education.
While state and local school districts are looking for ways to improve public schools, some people are trying to manage public schools privately. 1994- 1995 school year, four school districts signed contracts with private companies to manage the school. At that time, the attention of the whole country was focused on the educational management companies implemented in Minnesota and new york based on Edison's plan. A few years ago, Edison planned to open 200 for-profit schools in 1996, and by the beginning of the year, it would be 2 1 000. And promised to establish a better management style than public schools. 1993, the education management company signed a five-year contract, costing $65,438+800 million, to manage nine public schools in Baltimore and 183 public schools in Maryland, and signed a contract with Hartford school district in Connecticut to manage 32 schools in this district. In the past year, these attempts suffered serious setbacks. This kind of management makes people have great doubts about this kind of management in public schools. In Hartford school district, it was found that the terms of the contract signed with the education management company were greatly offset, and the management of 32 schools was reduced to six, and then the contract was cancelled due to continuous disputes. The same thing happened in Baltimore, and the school board canceled the contract. 1996, the federal government made a detailed investigation on the achievements of private management schools, including students' academic performance. The survey shows that the test scores have not improved substantially.
The viewpoint of private management of public schools and school districts has become a controversial issue. For those who think that the current public schools can't educate students well, private schools in a region are very attractive. Proponents of private management schools believe that this approach is not only conducive to government supervision, but also can make use of the economic strength and effective management of private enterprises to make education more effective in improving students' academic performance and reducing costs. But opponents believe that private management of public schools will bring terrible consequences, because the driving force of private management of schools is profit rather than improving students' performance. Children from low-income families, in particular, will become victims of the interests of the company's shareholders.
In order to meet the interests and needs of private companies, they should consider increasing the class size, cutting the expensive expenses of special education (education for the disabled) and some vocational and technical projects, and cutting down the "unnecessary" teachers of music, art and some special courses. In this way, the prospect of private management schools depends to a great extent on the public's trust in the effectiveness of private management schools. It can be predicted that the biggest threat faced by private schools will be the success of charter schools. If the charter school is successful, it will greatly challenge the privatization management mode of public schools. The prospect of private school management does not look optimistic.
Verb (abbreviation of verb) Problems worthy of attention in school reform
At present, American basic education faces many serious and realistic problems, most of which have not yet become the center of recent school reform.
Many old school buildings in American basic education seriously threaten the safety of children. For example, within 1 1 day after 1993 started school, more than 1000 schools in new york were closed because they did not meet the safety requirements. 1995, the federal government formulated safety standards for testing American basic school buildings. According to this standard, it is estimated that American basic schools need11200 million dollars to repair school buildings.
In the short term, some local school districts are buying movable classrooms, turning gymnasiums, storerooms and libraries into classrooms, and buying old buildings to turn them into temporary schools. The U.S. Department of Education estimates that in the next 65,438+00 years, more than 6,000 schools will need to be built to solve the school construction crisis.
An important problem facing American education is the construction of basic schools. Recognizing the urgency of this problem, the president proposed to use $5 billion as a construction fund. However, this proposal still needs the approval of Congress.
Immutable verbs poverty and racial and ethnic discrimination
Poverty and racial discrimination are another serious problem in American schools. In the1980s, the number of poor school-age children increased. Most of them are in danger of dropping out of school. From 1980 to 1990, the number of school-age children in poor families increased from more than 400,000 to 7.6 million. Since 1990, the number of children from poor families has continued to increase. One fifth of children live in families below the federal poverty line; A quarter of children under the age of three come from poor families. Due to the increase in the number of poor children, the racial and ethnic problems in American society are more complicated. From 1980 to 1990, the number of poor Latin American children increased from 486.5438+000 to 654.38+0600, and the number of poor Asian students increased from 1 1800 to 228,000. The number of poor white children decreased by 5.9%. The number of poor students in Latin America and Africa continues to increase. According to analysis, if the number of poor students continues to grow, by 2020, the number of poor students will reach 50% of the total number of students in the United States.
Therefore, in American education, we must be prepared to help students with poor economic conditions in the next few decades. This issue may also become another most important issue in American education in the future.