China's seal, the education management in ancient China.
What is educational administration? Educational administration is the organization, leadership and management of educational undertakings implemented by the state to achieve certain educational goals. Obviously, the emergence of educational administration must meet three conditions, one is the existence of educational institutions such as schools, the other is the existence of state machinery, and the third is the intervention of state power in educational institutions. According to the research of archaeological data, school education has sprouted in the late primitive society around 3000 BC in China. According to the Zhou Li, the earliest school in China appeared in the Five Emperors era in 2700 BC, and it was named "Chengjun". But there was no country at that time, and of course there was no education administration. Slave countries began to be established in the Xia Dynasty about 2 1 century BC. At this time, there were already specialized schools, and because of the system of "learning in the official", various educational institutions were placed under state management. This is the source of education administration in China, which has been more than 4,000 years.
In various stages or periods of China's thousands of years of historical development, the educational administrative management system has different characteristics, and the educational administrative institutions are also different. A Brief History of Education Management in China is divided into three chapters: ancient, modern and contemporary. Educational administration is a part of state administration, and the division of educational administration should not and cannot go against the division of historical periods in China. However, it is necessary to find out when China's modern education administration and modern education administration started, but we have to respect the track of China's education administration. The author regards the establishment of new schools by Westernization Mud in the 1960s as the origin of modern education administration in China, the abolition of imperial examination system and the promulgation of modern academic system in China as the starting point of modern education administration in China, and the education administration after the founding of the People's Republic of China as the contemporary education administration in China. This paper makes a brief analysis of the ancient educational administrative institutions in China.
I. Educational administrative institutions in Xia, Shang, Zhou, Qin and Han Dynasties
In the Xia Dynasty, various educational institutions, such as orderly learning, school and teaching, implemented the system of "officials guarding learning", "learning in officials" and "integration of officials and teachers". Laws and regulations and ritual vessels are in the hands of the government, and only officials have books and utensils. School teachers are government education officials, and school management is the educational administration of the country. Under this special point, China's educational administration came into being.
In addition to "Yao" and "Xu", Shang School also added "Xue" and "Zhe Zong". The name "Xue" began from now on. The "learning" of business is not only an established school, but also a "university" and a "primary school", forming the embryonic form of a two-level school education system. "Zhezong" is a specialized institution that teaches rites and music and trains scholars, with full-time teachers. Shang Dynasty, like Xia Dynasty, "officials guard their studies", only the children of slave owners and nobles are eligible for education, teachers are officials, the classics collected by the state are teaching materials, and the content of political science is stipulated by the state. "Learning in the official" embodies the basic characteristics of education management in Xia-Shang slavery society.
According to Zhou Li and Xue Ji, the Western Zhou Dynasty was the earliest educational system of "integration of politics and religion" divided by administrative regions in China. The administrative affairs of central education in the Western Zhou Dynasty were mainly handled by Liu Qing Zongbo. Zong Bo has a senior musician, also known as Lezheng, who is in charge of music and education and is the host of the Western Zhou School. The local governor is the highest leader of local education, and at the same time has the post of township doctor, who is in charge of the prohibition of politics and religion. This is the sprout of local education administration in China. Educational administration is the organization, leadership and management of national education. From this point of view, there was no complete and systematic education administration in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty (Spring and Autumn and Warring States). However, vassal States encouraged the establishment of private schools and even subsidized them; Paying attention to cultivating scholars and even holding large-scale learning palaces has become a special form of official learning.
The Qin Dynasty established the official teacher system and the doctor system. Chang Feng, the leader of the "Nine Nobles", is in charge of the country's religious etiquette, and education is also within its management scope. The township "establishes three hands-on education for the elderly."
The establishment system of the central administrative organs and officials in the Han Dynasty basically followed the Qin system, and there were "Jiuqing" and other institutions below the central government, but their names and powers were adjusted. Feng Chang, who is in charge of etiquette, was renamed Taichang, in charge of educational affairs. Local governors are responsible for the administrative affairs of local education, and there are no full-time officials to manage education.
Second, the educational administrative institutions in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties and Sui and Tang Dynasties
In the Jin Dynasty, there was a regulation that "every county has more than 1,000 primary schools and less than 1,000 primary schools". Guo Zi School was established in four dynasties in the Southern Dynasty, and imperial academy and some aristocratic schools were established in four dynasties in the Northern Dynasty.
Imperial academy was founded in the Sui Dynasty. Before the Sui Dynasty, Taichang (Zongbo, Juchang), who was in charge of etiquette, generally focused on management education, and Si Tuleideng, who was in charge of land registration, also had the responsibility of management education. Sui changed the old practice and established imperial academy as the highest educational administrative institution in China, and set Jiuji as the highest education chief. Under the wine, there are positions such as manager, manager, chief bookkeeper and clerk. The central official school in Sui Dynasty included university, Guo Zi Xue, four subjects, calligraphy and arithmetic, which was a step further than only Guo Zi Xue and imperial academy. Imperial College has a doctor who always knows what to learn and a teaching assistant to assist in teaching and management. Since imperial academy in Sui Dynasty, it is an inevitable requirement for education to develop to a certain extent. Although local official schools are managed by local governments, there are no full-time educational administrators in local governments.
The central administrative organization in the Tang Dynasty followed the six-part system of the Sui Dynasty, which consisted of six departments, namely, officials, households, ceremonies, soldiers, punishments and workers. The Ministry of Rites has become the highest administrative body in charge of education through the laws in charge of national etiquette and tribute, and imperial academy, which belongs to the Ministry of Rites, is a specialized central educational administrative body. There is also an institution that manages court education. Vocational education institutions established by the central departments shall be managed by the departments themselves. Imperial academy, as a special educational administrative institution of the central government, is in charge of the politics of Confucianism, four schools of Confucianism, law, calligraphy and arithmetic, and seven schools of mathematics, according to the book of New Houses. Imperial academy set Jiuji as the CEO and two managers as deputies. There are 65,438+0 people under Cheng, who are responsible for managing the daily affairs of imperial academy and the academic achievements of seven students. Every year, students who have completed their studies are sent to toast with the company and hold graduation exams, and those who report to the Ritual Department are required to save the exams. Main book 1 person, responsible for taking charge of seals and managing the code of conduct of seventh-grade students. Chongwen Pavilion, which is dominated by royal children, belongs to the East Palace system. Hong Wen Pavilion, which specializes in collecting children of senior officials with three or more products, is under the management of Menxia Province, one of the government affairs centers in the Tang Dynasty. Another central province, Zhongshu Province, has its own specialized schools, such as Taiyi Department and Tiantai Department of Taiyi Department, and there are also primary schools in the secretariat province. In the Tang Dynasty, there was no special local education administrative organization, but a long-standing position was set up in the local government to manage education, which was the earliest full-time local education administrative official in China.
Third, the educational administrative institutions in the Song and Yuan Dynasties
The educational administrative system in Song Dynasty inherited the Tang system, and the Ministry of Rites was in charge of the "school tribute law", which was the highest administrative institution in charge of education. The minister of rites is Shang Shu, followed by assistant minister. Imperial academy is a specialized central education administrative organization, which is subordinate to the Ministry of Rites. In the early Song Dynasty, imperial academy had dual functions as an administrative and teaching institution, which was not only the central educational administrative organ, but also the highest institution of learning in the country. However, imperial academy's teaching function has existed in name only. During the Yuanfeng period at the end of the Northern Song Dynasty, imperial academy's teaching function was transferred to imperial academy and became a specialized educational administrative organ. In the Song Dynasty, the earliest full-time local educational administrative organization in China, the Educational Administration Promotion Department, was established.
The central education administration in Liao Dynasty also set up imperial academy under the Ministry of Rites, with academic officials such as wine festival, superintendent, inspector and principal book, and set up schools in imitation of the Tang system. In the sixth year of Qing Dynasty (A.D. 1060), imperial academy (now Datong City, Shanxi Province) was located in Zhongjing, with the same official position as imperial academy, but at this time, imperial academy's educational administrative function had been weakened, and its main function was to run schools. There is no special local education administrative organization in Liao, and the local education administrative affairs are directly under the responsibility of the local governor.
Jin's central educational administration is the Ministry of Rites and its subordinate imperial academy. In imperial academy, there is a wine-offering department in charge of Guo Zi School and imperial academy, and in imperial academy, there is a collating penholder who is responsible for editing and publishing textbooks commonly used in China. At the end of the Jin Dynasty, a special local educational administrative organization was set up, and special personnel were appointed to manage the educational administrative affairs of the government, state and county.
There was no central educational administration in the Yuan Dynasty. Although the Central Committee of the Yuan Dynasty also set up six departments, it did not give the power to manage schools. The highest administrative institution of management education is Jixian College, and then the imperial academy is established in Jixian College. Central management and education institutions include Hanlin National History Academy, Mongolian Hanlin Academy, Ministry of Medical Promotion, Sitiantai and so on. The duty of Jixian Academy is to "take charge of the school, seek seclusion and gather talents." The main administrative officials are college students, bachelors and straight bachelors. University students often serve as imperial academy's drinking ceremony and directly manage the school. Hanlin National History Institute is mainly responsible for the translation and compilation of national history, and teaches the language of "Easy is costly". The main officials are Hanlin bachelor, attendants, lecturers and straight bachelor. Studying in China is under its jurisdiction. Mongolian Hanlin Academy is responsible for Mongolian imperial edicts, translation and writing of ancient Mongolian texts. The chief officials are in charge of imperial edict, bachelor's degree, pending judgment, editing and so on, and imperial academy and Mongolian schools are under their jurisdiction. The Department of Medical Promotion and Tiantai Department are responsible for running schools within the system. The Yuan Dynasty set up a special local educational administrative organization. In addition to the places where the provincial capitals are located, the Confucianism Promotion Department is in charge of schools in all provinces, prefectures and counties. In addition, Mongolian officials were set up in Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Huguang and Jiangxi provinces, and most provincial capital cities set up official schools.
Fourthly, the educational administrative institutions in Ming and Qing Dynasties.
The Ming Dynasty was a highly centralized autocratic dynasty. The Ministry of Rites is in charge of all rites, letters, tributes and schools, and is in charge of education administration. There was no special central education administrative organ in Ming Dynasty. Although there is imperial academy under the Ministry of Rites, imperial academy is the institution that manages schools all over the country. The central official credits other than Chinese studies belong to various departments. Wushu belongs to the Ministry of War. Medicine is supervised by the physician, and the medical promotion department is supervised by the physician. Zongxue is a long history headed by Wang Fu. The local education administration in Ming Dynasty was mainly managed by the province. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, local official schools and related educational affairs were in the charge of the inspection department, the chief secretary, the information department and state and county officials. In the first year of Emperor Taizong's orthodoxy (1436), "every place was supervised, and there was one in the south and one in the north Zhili, specializing in further studies." A system of academic extension officials has been established. After the establishment of non-commissioned officers in various provinces, most of them no longer ask about academic affairs, and some officials are left out again and again. They believe that it is difficult for entrance officials to supervise education because of the barrier between mountains and seas or other reasons. In the first year of Jingtai (1450), the Jinshi official system was abolished. However, after the provincial school political reform was supervised by the inspector general, the management of the school was gradually relaxed. Therefore, in the sixth year of Jingtai (1455), the inspector general was re-established in the north and south areas of Zhili. 146 1, the provinces resumed the promotion of academic officials to learn politics. This system was maintained until the Ming Dynasty. The process of the establishment, abolition and re-establishment of academic promotion officers in the Ming Dynasty for more than 20 years reminds us to correctly handle the relationship between government responsibility and full-time officials.
The Qing dynasty imitated the lighting system and set up the cabinet as the central organization, which consisted of six departments: officials, households, ceremonies, soldiers, punishments and workers. The Ministry of Rites is in charge of imperial examinations, schools, celebrations, sacrifices, funeral etiquette and other affairs throughout the country, with one minister, left assistant minister and right assistant minister. There are four departments under the Ministry of Rites, and the specialized educational administrative agency is only the academic and political department under the Department of Instrument System. Imperial academy in the Qing Dynasty was not in charge of the Ministry of Rites, but was nominally directly led by the emperor. In the middle of the Qing Dynasty, in the third year of Yongzheng (A.D. 1725), the Minister of Management and Supervision was appointed, who was in charge of imperial academy, and a prince was appointed. Later, they were generally selected from Manchu Jinshi, ministers and assistant ministers. Imperial academy is the highest institution of learning in this country.
At the same time, it also has the function of education administration, and is responsible for managing Russian Academy, Mathematics Academy, Eight Banners Academy and Ryukyu Academy. In addition, the Hanlin Academy, the Ministry of War, Qin, Zongrenfu and Lifan Academy all have educational administrative functions to manage their official schools.