The ancestors of the Bai nationality were called "Dian Burning", "Lao", "Mao", "Bai Man", "Bai Man" and "Jia Min" in history. Naxi people call it "Nama" and Yi people call it "Lemo". The aborigines call themselves "burning children", "burning children", "Bai Ni" and "Bai Gang", which means burning people or whites. As early as the Neolithic Age, there were residents in Erhai Lake area who lived in semi-caves. During the Qin and Han Dynasties, the relationship between Erhai area and the mainland became increasingly close. In BC 109, the Western Han Dynasty moved a large number of Han people here and spread their advanced production technology here. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, it was changed to Yongchang County. In the Tang Dynasty, Yaozhou Governor's Office was located here. Later, Nanzhao slavery regime was established with the ancestors of Yi and Bai as the main body. In 907, a "Dali Kingdom" with Bai Duan family as the main body was established, which was in a vassal relationship with the Song Dynasty. 1253, the Yuan Dynasty established a province in Yunnan and set up Dali Road and Heqing Road in Dali area. In the Ming Dynasty, it was changed to Dali House and Heqing House, and the policy of changing soil into water was implemented. The Qing dynasty continued to follow the policies of the Ming dynasty, but appointed some local officials and chiefs in remote mountainous areas.
socioeconomics
Before the founding of New China, the social and economic development in Bai areas was unbalanced. Generally speaking, the feudal landlord economy has an absolute advantage and the capitalist economy has developed. In some mountainous areas, especially in alpine regions, there are still remnants of feudal lords, slavery and even primitive communes. Agriculture is the main economic sector of Bai society. In the feudal landlord economic zone, landlords and rich peasants who account for less than 10% of the rural population occupy about 60% ~ 80% of the land, while farmers who account for more than 90.9/6 only have 20% ~ 40% of the land. More than 70% farmers have become poor farm workers. Land rent exploitation generally accounts for 50% to 60% of the harvest, as much as 70% to 80%; Usury and employee exploitation are also serious. Commercial capital is relatively developed, and there are some firms that import foreign yarn and export asbestos, yellow silk, bristles and tea. White commercial capital developed on the basis of landlord economy. Capitalists turned commercial capital into land capital and concentrated a large amount of land.
After the founding of New China, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC), the Bai people have successively completed democratic reform and socialist transformation. In the central part of Dali, where the Bai people mainly live, the democratic reform was completed in 1953, and the socialist transformation was basically completed in 1956. In the Bai nationality areas ruled by Tusi, such as the remnants of feudal lords such as Lake Water and Liuku, democratic reforms were completed through peaceful consultation. In the Bai nationality areas such as Bijiang and Fugong, where the population is large and the class differentiation is not obvious, democratic reform is not carried out as a movement, but combines economic and cultural development with socialist transformation to gradually complete some tasks of democratic reform. 1956165438+10, Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture was established.
Over the past 40 years since the founding of the People's Republic of China, especially after the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Party, Quanzhou's industrial and agricultural production has developed rapidly. Xiaguan, the capital of the autonomous prefecture, has developed from a consumer city before the founding of the People's Republic of China to an important industrial city in western Yunnan. Quanzhou has established electric power, machinery, auto repair, chemical industry, paper making, textile, leather, manufacturing and other industrial departments. 65,438+0,990, the total industrial and agricultural output value of Quanzhou reached 334,536,5438+0,000 yuan, of which 65,438+0,433, 690 yuan, 65,438+0,965,438+0.62 million yuan. Quanzhou's per capita gross industrial and agricultural output value11.4 yuan, the per capita net income of farmers is 576 yuan. Cars connect every town in the whole state. Great progress has also been made in education, medical care and health care. The Bai people already have a considerable number of professors, writers, doctors and various scientific researchers. Schistosomiasis, which was widely spread before the founding of the People's Republic of China, has been basically prevented. Now there has been a scene of prosperity in the white area, production is getting better and better, and people's lives are improving year by year.
Culture and art
In the long historical development process, the Bai people have created splendid culture and contributed to the civilization of the motherland. Traces of ditches were found in the Neolithic site in Canger. However, at the Haimenkou site in Jianchuan, it is found that residents have been engaged in raising livestock and agriculture. During the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, bronze culture appeared in Erhai area. During the Shu-Han period, Erhai area had developed into "paddy field animal husbandry". By the Tang Dynasty, Bai ancestors were able to build Cangshan "Gaohe" water conservancy project and irrigate tens of thousands of hectares. Building mountain terraces, Deng Chuan Luoshi River flood diversion project. Nanzhao has its own calendar. Zhou Silian, a Bai scholar in the Ming Dynasty, wrote Tai He Geng's Lost Catalogue and Li Xingwei's Strange Prescription Book, both of which are representative works summarizing ancient astronomy and medicine.
Bai nationality is unique in art, and its architecture, sculpture and painting art are famous all over the world. The three pagodas of Chongsheng Temple in Dali, built in the Tang Dynasty, are nearly 60 meters high, with a grade of 16. They are beautifully made, similar to the Little Wild Goose Pagoda in Xi 'an. Shi Baoshan Grottoes in Jianchuan have exquisite craftsmanship and lifelike figures. It has the similarity of China grottoes and strong national style, and occupies a high position in the history of stone carving art in China. Jizushan temple complex, built in Yuan and Ming Dynasties, has overlapping arches and upturned corners. Carved layers of figures, flowers and birds on the doors and windows are unique and timeless. They are all made by the famous "Jianchuan Carpenter". Bai lacquerware has high artistic attainments. Most of the high-tech painters brought by Yuan and Ming Dynasties were selected from Yunnan. The lacquerware of Dali spread to the Ming Dynasty and has always been regarded as a precious "Song strip". When Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China, the Picture Scroll of Nanzhao History stolen by imperialism was made by Bai painters Zhang Shun and Wang Yu 1989. It vividly depicts the myths and legends established by Nanzhao in the form of continuous short paintings, and is one of the precious cultural relics in China. 1 172, Zhang's Dali scroll was called "the treasure of the south". This painting is 10 foot long, 134 inch long. With the theme of King Jing of Protecting the Country, 628 characters with different faces were portrayed. Exquisite brushwork and exquisite craftsmanship are the treasures of ancient art in China.
In ancient Bai people, there was a combination of music and dance. Genesis, a long poem circulated among the people, tells the story of Pangu's creation and traces the equal life of the Bai people in primitive society without class oppression and exploitation. It is "the world is peaceful", "regardless of the rich and the poor" and "the people value fat". Poems such as On the Road, Peony in Daci Temple and Cave of Heaven by Yang Qikun, a Bai poet in Nanzhao, are called "master" masterpieces and included in the whole Tang poetry. Literary works such as Wang Fuyun, Snake Bone Tower, Killing State Officials and Hooking the Sun praised the heroes of the ancient Bai people in class struggle and production struggle. Nanzhao's famous lion dance was introduced to the Central Plains in the Tang Dynasty, and Nanzhao's sacred music was listed as one of the 14 pieces of music in the Tang Dynasty. Bai Diao is a widely circulated metrical poem "3715" (the first three sentences and seven words, the last five words). In the middle of15th century, some scholars used this folk song form to write famous poems, such as "Ci Ji Hua Shan Bei" written by Yang Nai. "Blowing and blowing" in white drama is a comprehensive art developed on the basis of the early "Big Ben".
According to the historical picture of Zhongxing in Nanzhao, there are historical books such as Zhang Guo Shi, Weishan Career, Tiezhu Temple and Xi Erhai. During the Dali period, there were also white history and national history, both of which have been lost. Only fragments of white history are scattered in inscriptions in the Ming Dynasty. The Bai history books of Yuan Dynasty, Gu Baitong and Feng Xuan's Reading Yun Zhi, have been lost, but they are all blueprints of Yunnan local chronicles in Ming Dynasty, such as Yunnan Zai Ji and Nanzhao unofficial history. According to historical records, the history of Erhai area was studied by Yang Shiyun, a Bai scholar in Ming Dynasty. This book was collected by another Bai scholar, Li Yuanyang, in Jiajing's Annals of Dali, and it is the final edition of Wanli's Examination of Yunnan Tongzhi Evolution. Wang Song, a Bai historian in Qing Dynasty, collected 6/kloc-0 kinds of books about Yunnan when compiling Daoguang's Annals of Yunnan, and compiled them into 2l volumes, which are important reference materials for studying Yunnan's national history and local history.
Social customs and habits
Bai people basically practice monogamy. The son separated immediately after marriage, and parents usually lived with their youngest son. Some of the landlords are big families with four generations living under one roof. People of the same family and surname don't marry, but they will marry their uncles and aunts as usual. Marriage is usually arranged by parents, so it should be appropriate. A childless woman can be adopted by her husband's wife, and a childless woman can also adopt her brother's children (adoption) or adopted children. Son-in-law and adopted son had to change their names and surnames in order to obtain the right to inherit property.
Before the Yuan Dynasty, the Bai people generally practiced cremation. After the Yuan Dynasty, due to the influence of the Han nationality, it was changed to burial. Funerals are usually grand.
Rice and wheat are the staple foods of Bai people in Pingba area, while corn and adopted children are the main foods in mountainous areas. Bai people like to eat sour, cold and spicy flavors. They are good at curing ham, bow fish, fried chicken brown, pork liver and other dishes. They also like to eat a unique "raw meat" or "raw skin", that is, roast pork half-cooked, cut into shredded pork, and served with ginger, garlic, vinegar and so on. Bai people also like to drink roasted tea.
Bai costumes vary from place to place. In Dali and other central areas, men wear white or blue baotou, white double-breasted clothes and black collars, white trousers and bags embroidered with beautiful patterns on their shoulders. Dali women usually wear white coats, black or purple velvet collars, blue wide pants, short waistcoats with embroidered ribbons, embroidered "knotted shoes", silver bracelets with enamel and silver rings on their arms, and silver earrings with three whiskers and five whiskers on the right. Married people tie their hair in a bun, while unmarried people hang it on their backs or braid it on their heads, all of which are wrapped in embroidery, printing or colored towels.
In the housing form of Bai people, the dam area is mostly "three long houses", with huts with kitchens, barns and yards, or tile houses with "one front and two ears", "three sides and one wall" and "four entrances and five patios", with bedrooms, kitchens and barns separated. Most of the mountainous areas are straw houses, "flash houses", bamboo baskets or "wooden cribs" with stables upstairs and downstairs, and cooking and sleeping places are often connected.
Religious beliefs and important festivals
White worship is equivalent to the master of the village god and believes in Buddhism. The Lord has some natural gods, some princes in Nanzhao Dali and some heroes who kill people. In the late Tang Dynasty, Buddhism prevailed in Erhai Lake area. At first, "Brahman" and profound yoga were introduced. Profound monks call it "Gui Li", so it is also called "Yan Li". After the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, Zen Buddhism was introduced to Dali in the mainland, and Buddhist temples were spread all over the country, which made Erhai area have the title of "ancient and fragrant country" for a long time.
"March Street", also known as "Guanyin City", is a grand festival and ceremony for the Bai people. The annual summer calendar is held from March 15 to 20 at the foot of Diancang Mountain in western Dali. At first, it was full of religious activities, and later it gradually turned into a grand material exchange meeting. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, businessmen from Sichuan, Tibet and Jiangnan provinces came here to do business. After the founding of New China, March Street has developed into an annual material exchange and national sports literature and art conference. Torch Festival is another grand festival, which is held on June 25th every summer. This is an activity that the Bai people wish for a bumper harvest and prosperity before the autumn harvest. That night, torches were erected in front of every household, and a fire broke out at the entrance of the village. Red and green paper flags were inserted on them, and some auspicious sentences were written. The villagers marched in the fields with torches for a week to eliminate pests. In addition, there are festivals such as "Around the Three Spirits" and "Playing in the Sea".
History:
Yi nationality is a nationality formed by the continuous integration of ancient Qiang people with southwest indigenous tribes in the long-term development process. In six or seven thousand, the ancient Qiang people living in Hehuang area in northwest China began to develop in all directions, and one of them swam to the southwest of the motherland. More than 3,000 years ago, the ancient Qiang people who traveled to the southwest formed "Six Yi", "Seven Qiang" and "Nine Borders" in the southwest of the motherland, which are the so-called "Song Yueyi", "Qing Qiang", "insulting Kun", "labor immersion" and "Mimo" that often appear in history books. When the ancient Qiang people swam to the southwest, there were already two ancient nationalities in the southwest-Baipu nationality and Baiyue nationality. After the ancient Qiang people went to the southwest, they learned that Baipu and Baiyue lived together for a long time and absorbed the southern culture of Baipu and Baiyue. After Wei and Jin Dynasties, the integration of Kunming people and Yan (Pu) developed into the integration of modern people. From the Han Dynasty to the Six Dynasties, the main residents in eastern Yunnan, western Guizhou and southern Sichuan were called "Lao people" in China's historical records, and sometimes "Lao people" were juxtaposed with "ordinary people".
Since the Sui and Tang Dynasties, there have been two kinds of barbarians among the ancestors of Yi people. Wuman is developed from Kunming tribe, while Baiman is mainly composed of Lao, Pu and other ethnic groups, and is integrated with other ethnic groups.
During the long-term formation and development of Yi ancestors, their activities once spread all over the central areas of Yunnan, Sichuan and Guizhou provinces and a part of Guangxi, and their core areas should be the vast areas adjacent to the three provinces.
An important feature in the history of the Yi people is the long-term maintenance of the slave possession system. Around the Western Han Dynasty in the 2nd century BC, there was a split between nomadic tribes and settled agricultural tribes in Yi ancestors' society. From the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Wei and Jin Dynasties, a group of ancestors of the Yi nationality were constantly divided, which indicated that the Kunming tribe had basically completed the transition from primitive tribe to slave ownership on the basis of conquering ordinary tribes.
In the 1930s, the Mongolian society Zhao Tong introduced the Six Zhao Dynasties, and the ancestors of the Yi and Bai nationalities in Yunnan established the Nanzhao slavery regime, with the ruling center in Dali Bai Autonomous Prefecture in western Yunnan, covering eastern Yunnan, western Guizhou and southern Sichuan, and basically controlling the main distribution areas of the ancestors of the Yi nationality.
Nanzhao slavery dynasty once ruled the Yi ancestors' areas for a long time, which had a far-reaching impact on the existence and development of local slavery. In the second year of Tang Dynasty (902), the collapse of Nanzhao slavery dynasty did not mean the demise of slavery in the areas of Yi ancestors. For more than 300 years in Song Dynasty, Yi ancestors in Rong (Yibin), Lu (Hanyuan) and Li (Hanyuan) were in the struggle between Song Dynasty and Dali regime, and the slave economy was relatively prosperous. In line with this, the slave production relations appeared the situation that big tribes enslaved small tribes.
In the third year of Mongolia, Mongolia and Mongolia Khan (1253), Mongolian cavalry attacked Yunnan in three routes from Sichuan, passing through the Yi region, which led to the formation of a loose anti-Mongolian alliance in the divided Yi region and began to be unified under the name of Luoluo people. Accordingly, Mongolian aristocrats intensified their struggle for the local Yi people and developed into a chieftain system in some frontier ethnic areas, in which the hereditary positions of leaders of all ethnic groups were enfeoffed to rule the local people. From 1263 to 1287, the Yi Tusi were established in Yuexi, Xichang, Pingshan, Dafang, Zhaotong and Weining.
During the 276 years of Ming Dynasty, the land spanned the Yi Tusi (Mozi) such as Shuixi (Dafang), Wuxuan (Weining), Wumeng (Zhaotong), Mangbu (Zhenxiong), Dongchuan (Huize), Yongning (Xuyong), Mahu (Pingshan) and Jianchang (Xichang). On the basis of the above hierarchical relationship, the chieftain system of Shuixi, Jianchang and Wumeng Yi people in Ming Dynasty is still the superstructure of slavery.
During the period of Kang Yong, the Qing Dynasty carried out the policy of "changing the soil into the stream" in the Yi area, which dealt a heavy blow to the forces of Tusi, Mutu and slave owners. With the development of social productive forces, some areas have quickly transitioned from slavery to feudalism.
Culture and art:
Yi people can sing and dance well. Yi people have various traditional tunes, such as climbing mountains, entering doors, welcoming guests, eating wine, getting married and mourning. Some tunes have fixed words, some don't, and they are all improvisations. Folk songs are divided into male and female voices, and local folk songs have their own unique styles. Yi musical instruments include Hulusheng, Mabu, Bawu, Kouxian, Yueqin, flute, Sanxian, chime, bronze drum and Daping drum. Yi dance also has its own characteristics, which can be divided into two types: group dance and solo dance, and most of them are group dances, such as "dancing songs", "dancing music", "dancing on the moon", "singing and dancing" and "pot dance". Cheerful movements and strong sense of rhythm are usually accompanied by flute, Qin Yue and Sanxian.
Yi people: a nation that can sing and dance well.
Liangshan is the hometown of singing and dancing, and Yi people are good at singing and dancing.
Liangshan Yi people's music is simple in style and varied, with distinctive and rich national characteristics. Folk songs in folk music are closely related to folk literature, and there are many well-known lyric poems, such as Amonilag, Ayi Ajia, Ajia Niu and Axi Niu Niu. They are all sung in the form of songs. In addition to narrative songs, there are songs sung at marriage, such as Hitting People, songs sung during Torch Festival, such as Living Alone, and songs sung at work, such as Plowing the Fields and Pastoral. In addition, there are folk songs, such as Butuo Goldman Sachs folk songs and children's songs.
The style of Yi folk songs varies from region to region. The folk songs in the south of Liangshan are loud and exciting, the folk songs in the central and western regions are soft and beautiful, and the folk songs in the eastern Enoch region are simple and simple. In the past, Yi folk songs generally gave people a feeling of depression, but their simple and beautiful national and regional charm was very distinct. Folk instrumental music is not for accompaniment, but for independent development and its own system. Remarkably, it shows a huge historical time and space span. Common ones are Kouxian, Qin Yue, Mabu, Hulusheng, Huqin, Xiao Yi, Jiandi and Suona. In addition, playing wood leaves, that is, playing music with a leaf, is also a popular folk music of the Yi people. Kouxian and Qin Yue are very common. Almost all women, old and young, have a pair of Kouxian hanging in front of their lapels and can play at any time. Kouxian is a unique and simple musical instrument, which consists of several thin reeds about seven or eight centimeters long. There are two kinds of bamboo and copper, at least two kinds and at most five or six kinds. The timbre of bamboo is deep and deep. The timbre of copper is crisp and beautiful. When playing, move the porn with your fingers and change the timbre with the voice of your mouth. In addition to the local sound, the reed also emits a very beautiful overtone, which constitutes the broad tone of music. Yueqin is mostly loved by young and middle-aged men, among whom there are many excellent folk Yueqin performers. In 1950s, Masha Wuzhi, a Yi girl from Liangshan, played the yueqin at the World Youth Student Festival in Moscow, which was warmly praised.
Folk dances of Liangshan Yi people are often inseparable from singing and instrumental music. Folk dances, such as Zi Qiao Dance, Bao Gu Dance, Weaving Felt Dance, etc. , are produced in productive labor, mostly simulating labor movement, showing the production process. The other is the common dances at festivals or weddings, such as Pot Field Dance, Fire Dance, Opposite Foot Dance, Quilt Dance and Reed Dance. Some people show diligence in agriculture and animal husbandry. The joy of harvest, some show the courage to fight and the pursuit of love.
The flower of Liangshan song and dance, which originated from Yi folk art, not only shines on the stage at home and abroad, but also blooms everywhere in modern life. Today, in Liangshan urban and rural areas, men, women and children can often be seen holding hands, stepping on the rhythm of national flavor and dancing happily. Dazuo is a transliteration of Yi language, which means stepping or pedaling. It is a group dance based on the traditional songs and dances of the Yi people. The movements are concise and lively, the music is melodious and smooth, the local flavor is strong, and the times are strong. Once formed in the 1980s, it quickly spread to the whole state, and with the wave of ethnic ballroom dancing in southwest China, it was quickly introduced to states and provinces. At the 94 Liangshan Yi International Torch Festival, guests from home and abroad joined hands with Yi compatriots and danced around piles of green bonfires. The scene was warm and spectacular, and the atmosphere was cordial and touching.
The national music of Yi people includes songs and musical instruments.
Yi people's songs include: historical poems, love songs, happy songs and folk songs-among them, there are many tunes such as happy wine songs, soul songs, ghost songs and witchcraft tunes; In terms of names, the songs are Russian, Elegant, Left Wing and Ge. "Russia" means singing, which can be sung on various occasions, and the atmosphere is more relaxed and casual; "Ya" is a solo folk song, and the singers are generally young men and women, mostly touching scenes; Left is a kind of wedding song. On the wedding night, two singers from both the host and the guest sang and danced. "Song" is a kind of chorus song sung in mourning for the dead or ancestor worship activities. One lead singer learns to sing, and the lyrics are improvised by the lead singer. "Bi" refers to the songs that Bimo of Yi people sang in religious activities, which we call religious music to distinguish it from "Russia". Music includes song and dance music, oral string music and leaf blowing music, among which there are many tunes. In addition, there are many kinds of musical instruments: Yueqin is one of the favorite musical instruments of Yi people, which is generally two strings and has strong artistic expression; The oral string is a bamboo leaf-shaped reed made of bamboo and copper, with a reed tongue in the middle, and the timbre is adjusted by controlling breathing; Mabu is one of the unique musical instruments of Yi people. Its performance is characterized by inhaling through the nostrils and letting the drums and cheeks breathe continuously, which can imitate the crying of babies and the singing of birds. Hulusheng and suona are mostly used to play Yi folk songs and tunes.
Customs and habits:
Climbing the Flower Building-Love and Marriage of Yi Men and Women: "Climbing the Flower Building" is a unique custom of Chu people. When a girl reaches the age of 16, her parents will build another hut for her to spend the night alone, while young men over 20 can climb the hut of their beloved girl and have sex at night. They whistle together, listen and tell each other their love. Even if there are several young couples at the same time, everyone is at home. Once love is mature, both men and women can get married with the consent of their parents, and parents generally do not interfere with their children's choices.
The wedding of Yi people in Xiaoliangshan, Yunnan is quite distinctive. When getting married, the man should prepare a horse and bring gifts such as wine, cloth, meat and noodles to meet the bride. Girls in daughter village can do everything they can to splash water on the wedding guests and catch them to have fun. All the people who send the bride are men, and the bride can't enter the door until the sun goes down. Before entering the door, a wooden bowl filled with mutton, a handle and wine was held by one person and wrapped around the bride's head to show that she was rich after marriage. Then the bride was carried into the house by her cousin.
"Jumping vegetables"-Yi people's singing and dancing meals: "Jumping vegetables", that is, dancing and taking food. It is the unique serving form and the highest etiquette for banquets of Yi people in Wuliangshan and Ailaoshan in Yunnan, and it is a long-standing traditional food culture that combines dance, music and acrobatics perfectly.
When entertaining guests, square tables are generally placed along two lines, with guests sitting on three sides, leaving a "food jumping" channel in the middle. Three gongs kicked off the "vegetable dance": gongs, lusheng, sanxian, stuffy flute, leaves and other folk music played together; In the girls and boys "woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo-woo. They joined a simple and honest folk music concerto, made funny expressions on their faces, and acted strangely with two dancing partners holding towels, just like butterflies playing with flowers, rushing forward and rushing back, hugging left and right, escorting them.
A pair of waiters have to serve four tables, and their partners put 32 bowls of vegetables into a back-to-the-palace gossip array, and each bowl of vegetables is like a "chess piece". Have their own positioning, everything according to the ancient rules under the table one by one, not disorderly.
Patriarchal family system prevails in Yi people all over the country, and young children often live with their parents. Women's status is low. The inheritance is divided equally among scholars, and unique businesses are generally owned by close relatives. Father and son names prevailed in the history of Yi people, and this custom continued in Liangshan Yi people until the establishment of People's Republic of China (PRC). Monogamy is the basic marriage system of Yi people. Marrying a daughter-in-law requires a higher bride price, and the more table marriage becomes more popular, the husband dies and transfers ownership. Before the founding of the People's Republic of China, some Yi areas in Yunnan still maintained the public housing system, and Liangshan Yi people maintained a strict hierarchical internal marriage. In history, most Yi people practiced cremation. Before the establishment of People's Republic of China (PRC), the residents of Liangshan and Yunnan along the Jinsha River still had this burial custom. Other areas have gradually changed to burial since the Ming and Qing Dynasties.