Metaphysics and epistemology are the two most important ideological systems of Mahayana Buddhism. It is generally believed that knowledge-only learning appeared later than middle school. In the history of Indian Buddhism, middle school and knowledge-only learning have been in parallel for a long time, and both sides cannot have both. The main idea of the middle view is that the cosmology is empty and all laws are false; The main idea of "knowing only" is "knowing only the unbounded" and knowing only the inside. Judging from the contents of Xuanzang's On Cheng Weizhi and Kui Ji's On Cheng Weizhi and Ji Shu, the emergence of knowledge-only learning was stimulated by the mainstream Indian thoughts at that time, such as Brahman ideology and number theory. If this factor is put aside, the emergence of epistemology itself means a kind of review and reflection on middle school thought. Epistemology has constructed a huge conceptual system of names and phenomena, trying to give answers to some fundamental problems of Buddhism that are different from those of the Chinese school. This difference in explaining basic problems cannot be simply attributed to the portal's point of view. Personally, I think this represents a replacement of the core category of Mahayana Buddhism. The core category of middle school is "pseudonyms", and the core category of consciousness is "knowledge". The former advocates "only falsehood" and the latter advocates "only falsehood". In other words, the transition from "only falsehood" to "only knowledge" marks the transition of Mahayana Buddhism from learning to only knowledge.

Basic Buddhism and Epistemology

1. Narration: Everyone in Buddhism knows that there is a name called "Hinayana", which appeared about 300 years after the demise of Buddhism, when Mahayana Buddhism rose. Otherwise, why didn't it appear in the Eight Mile Sanzang and its translation into Agama, as well as in the theory of ministries, let alone Mahayana? About the first century AD, the teachers of Mahayana Buddhism called the primitive and fundamental Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism and called themselves Mahayana Buddhism. These Mahayana scholars are "anonymous" in history, and later they can be represented by A?vagho?a, Dragon Tree and Zuo Wu, all of whom are against the news. The devaluation of Agama was not the Buddha's idea in any case, but a name that was repeated three times and five times, and was later separated by Mahayana believers. There was no "multiplication" between the Buddha's life and his death for 300 to 400 years. Although there were twenty schools in Buddhism, it was still "drinking from the source". , "the unity of all laws", there is no division and criticism of the third size. So many of these judgments are made by Mahayana scholars on purpose.

Use "Mahayana"-Mahayana, Hinayana, One-way and Three-way to compare Buddhism and criticize Buddhist thought. Is it India? In the history of Buddhism, there were six judgments and eight judgments in the original teaching method, and later there were more. Buddhism was introduced into China? Sentencing style of study is more prevalent. In the Tang Dynasty, there was a saying that "the ancient sages were innovative" (note 1). Some are ideological criticisms, such as "multiplication" and "sectarianism"; Some criticize from time, such as "three times" and "five times". The religions at five o'clock and eight o'clock say that we can't believe this is in line with history. Similar? The theories of "big and small multiplication" and "one times three times" were also created by Mahayana scholars later. India is a country that does not talk about history? Home, especially before the ancient Buddha, can be said to have no historical materials at all. After the Buddha established religion, there was a glimmer of light in Indian history, but it was still unclear. Today, from Jordamo Buddha to? Explore Indian Buddhist thought, briefly as follows:

2. Fundamental Buddhism: Chinese Buddhist scholars have recognized the scriptures since ancient times, and Mahayana Sutra and Hinayana Sutra are all Buddhist sayings. Therefore, the Buddha is also called the king of France, because he is the only place to explain all laws, that is to say, Buddhism is the main reason of law and is called fundamental Buddhism. Broadly speaking, the theories made by later disciples are all based on Buddhism, which can also be called fundamental Buddhism. The fundamental Buddhism mentioned here is named after the teachings of the founder Sakyamuni Buddha and his first generation of disciples. All the teaching methods of Mahayana Classics are based on Joe? Buddhism's ideas of words and deeds, such as Huayan Sutra and Zhongshan Sutra, are called fundamental Buddhism.

The former name of Buddha Sakyamuni Gautama was Siddhartha. He was born in 466 BC? In the city of Kapiro in northern India (now the southern border of Nepal), among the Sakyamuni people. He became a monk in 437 BC (at the age of 29) and became a great enlightenment philosopher in 43 BC1year (at the age of 35). After becoming a monk, he was called Sakyamuni Buddha. In 386 BC, at the age of 80, he went to extinction. ?

Buddhism within 30 years after the death of Buddha is called the period of fundamental Buddhism (Note 2). During this period, the Buddhism mentioned by the Buddha was aimed at the social thought at that time. He opposed Vedic thought, Brahmins and their social system. At that time, the Indian thought was quite complicated, which can be summarized as follows:

1, Philosophy: It's about dualism. 1. Body and soul: The philosophical thought at that time, that is, the six theories of theorists, focused on seeking relief from mental distress. As for the general public, that is, Brahmins, they enjoy themselves. In order to satisfy this desire for liberation, they found: second, the theory of self and deity, and the theory of heaven being born. God and I are masters of creation. As long as he (God and I) enjoys it, self-nature should meet his needs? Change, produce everything. If human beings achieve the unity of God and me, they will never be born or die, hence the name liberation. In all kinds of laws, everything in the universe is a combination of self, God and me. The body and soul of the former belong to phenomenology? ; The latter's self-nature and divine self-nature belong to ontology.

2. In religion: revision and asceticism (Note 3); India is a tropical region, and the rivers on the mainland are rich in products. People are not disturbed by their livelihood, and it is easy to have the idea of being born, so India's religious beliefs are very developed and there are many sects. However, people of any sect cannot do without meditation and asceticism. In particular, the Six Divisions and Samoan groups pay more attention to these two behaviors. Before becoming a monk, the Buddha studied Brahmanism, practicing meditation first and asceticism later. After several years, he took part in many virtue activities. Finally, he felt that penance, a practice that never caused physical and mental pain and fatigue, never achieved positive results? Perhaps, it is not a real practice. So I switched to meditation, so I learned from two famous immortals with high practice, but I felt that their meditation methods were not accurate, and they could not realize wisdom and truth. So he gave up the meditation method of the immortals, recovered his health first, and sought the way of enlightenment by himself. What is the so-called bodhi seat? Thinking. After the Buddha became a monk, the teaching method he said was nothing more than three dharma seals according to the realm he realized. Sanfa Seal means "all things are impermanent, all laws are without me, and all things are bitter". These three truths are the origin and end of Gautama Buddha's enlightenment under the bodhi tree, and later became the practice of Buddhism. Such as impermanence, selflessness and bitterness? Decline and rise, four Dieners is noisy! Dad, plutonium is small and thin. Dad, what's the new dam? Pen pry? Hey? The object is our phenomenal world. Practitioners should practice in these three aspects, and practice observation from these three aspects, that is, experience, in order to achieve the good result of "nirvana is silent"-a state of peace of mind. The first three are causes, and the last one is consequences. If nirvana silence is added to the Sanfa Seal, it is also called the Sifa Seal. As shown in the table:

Although agama has many meanings, Sanfa Seal is the most important one. But what are the three dharma seals of Buddhism? What does it have to do with knowing? Here, we need to know that impermanence in various behaviors is just a void in knowledge? There are different ways of thinking and ways to realize it. There is no self in all laws, that is, there is no self in what is known and discussed. Because the general study of Buddhism is about people without me, not Buddhism without me; Hinayana is empty and true, while Dharma is empty and true. Mahayana speaks without me, and speaks without me. The evidence is conclusive. People are not as narrow as I am, and law is not as broad as I am. These two kinds of differences without self came into being after the rise of Mahayana. Today, when I say "all laws have no self", I just want to show that there is no self-righteousness. Agama only said that all laws have no me, not that people have no me. Every leak is bitter, nirvana is silent, Mahayana? That's what Buddhism plays with. However, this thought is even stronger in Agama.

3. Primitive Buddhism: The difference between primitive and fundamental is the difference in time and thought, which can be said to be consistent, but the difference is in the precepts of the monk group. In the period of fundamental Buddhism, the Buddha and the direct Buddha? Until the disciple dies. First of all, it began with the reincarnation of Buddhist disciples, from about 350 BC to 2700 120 years, which was the era of primitive Buddhism. The so-called primitive man, because this hundred years, thinking? Thinking about behavior is generally based on Buddhist world heritage. In this primitive Buddhist period, Buddhist disciples, especially monks, paid special attention to two things: first, maintaining the inheritance of the legal system; Second, maintain the existence of the right to teach, which is? The actions of monks are common in the code. In maintaining the inheritance of teaching methods: not as maintained as advocated by China? Patriarchal system, such as Buddhism spread to Ye Jia, Ye Jia spread to Ananda and even the twenty-eighth ancestor. Is it to maintain the mass knot? Collect oral classics so that they can be handed down from generation to generation. In terms of religious power, it is to maintain the conservatism of precepts, especially the karma system. This system, especially in Southern Buddhism, is by far the strongest? His scale is still there. Later, the system of ancestor worship and the system of spreading scriptures in China were all forms of expression.

Therefore, if we pay attention to formal conservatism, we will not make progress in theory. During this period, we can draw a conclusion that the focus of early fundamental Buddhism was Buddhism, not foundation. People don't obey the law; In the era of primitive Buddhism, the focus of Buddhism was dharma (monk group), that is, to follow the monk group and precepts? Method, but not according to people and not according to the law. Later, in the Buddhist period, the focus of Buddhism was law, not people who followed the law, nor law and monks, so Mahayana came into being, and its focus was still law and thought. Primitive Buddhist thought? I want to give priority to precepts or pay attention to teaching methods. Future generations should study why "all behaviors are impermanent, all laws have no self, and all things are bitter"? There are five ideas in the explanation. What if the five elements belong to the previous color? In the material aspect (body), the following four connotations of thought, behavior and knowledge belong to the spiritual aspect (psychology), so the five connotations are lines. Why did the Buddha say that? It is to say five meanings to those who are fascinated by me and divide their psychology into details to show that there is no ego in the so-called heart. Also, the Buddha's camouflage method, say twelve places for me, and analyze the color method in detail to show that things have no self. So the Buddha's thought is progressive, but he only knows the truth of the law, right? Based on these five connotations, the twelve places and eighteen realms are fundamentally inseparable from the theory of three laws and seals.

Therefore, Agama, a primitive Buddhism, only knows the origin of thought. I'll talk about this later. Fourthly, Agama talks about idealism in many places: for example, the theory of reincarnation of life and death and the theory of the origin of career sense are all based on the heart; Another example is Agama's theory of connotation, place, boundary, origin, food and housing. It's all Buddhism. The book "Only Knowing the Law" is an introduction to the theory of knowing all laws, but this theory is to explain the meaning of "all laws have no self" in Agama's book, so that only all laws are known (note 4); The theory of "Wu Youyun" is to explain the five movements in Agama, and to create the law with the bright edge (Note 5). The difference between primitive Buddhist scriptures and only knowledge is that only knowledge refers to eight knowledge, while Agama refers to six knowledge. Mahayana only knows the reincarnation of all beings, and because of worry and karma, entering the mother's womb is the eighth Aryan knowledge. Agama said that when you enter your mother's womb, it is the sixth consciousness. Other names, such as five aggregates and hundred laws, are later generations respectively.

In addition to Agama, there are seven theories of primitive Buddhism, including Abidharma's theory of Tibet and six-legged theory of wisdom. Seven theories, such as the theory of partial cohesion. One of the seven theories was created by Buddhist disciple Da Arhat, but it was born very late. The theory of Abidar's law has been translated into the theory of the law of rights. Some of its genres are classic, and the content is to explain various teachings of Agama (Note 6). These theories have a lot to do with epistemology, and at the same time, they are also related to Buddhist thought and legal terminology groups at that time. Weaving is also quite systematic. Knowledge-only learning only adopts its theory, but it is strictly organized. If you only know five? The enjoyment of all laws is based on the theory of sufficient law, the theory of five things and the theory of giving up everything.

Fourth, the Ministry of Buddhism: In the era of the Ministry of Buddhism, monks began to split after the demise of Buddhism 120 (AD 267). In Vishnu in central India, he went abroad to become a monk because he practiced ten non-Buddhist teachings. The promise aroused public opposition, so a second rally was held. However, the results of the meeting were divided into two parts because of different opinions: one was the attendance department, and the other was the mass department. The former is conservative orthodoxy; The latter is a progressive innovator. Later, these two schools evolved into several schools respectively and became the famous twenty schools of Buddhism. Seats? The Ministry developed to Ceylon, Myanmar and other places, and it is still popular today; The popular department has developed into Mahayana, which is popular in China, Japan, Mongolia and Tibet? Land. The only knowledge mentioned here belongs to Mahayana. Ceylon and other places on the ground still don't believe in Mahayana Buddhism, but? There are many researchers. Because they have one thing in common-they are all Buddhists, and they all say what goes around comes around (Note 7). The sects of Buddhism are centered on Ashoka's Buddhism, and Ashoka takes Buddhism as the state religion. He ascended the throne in 27 1 year BC, and the seventh year thereafter was the deluge teaching method. Under his protection, it is difficult to reach the top? Those who want to build even the emperor must have held the third congress. It is said that this gathering only gathered the theories of Tibet, confirmed that the attendance was orthodox and pure Buddhism, and criticized the theories of other sects (Note 8). In their discussion, they also talked about mind, mind, color and nirvana (Note 9). Heart: Is there a "point"? Heart ",then only scholars regard it as Araya knowledge. Generally speaking, the philosophy of being seated is not very good? There is no progress and development because he is conservative. They believe that all teachings written in Pali are true Buddhism. Therefore, these teachings can only be "believed" and cannot participate in their own opinions. They can only be regarded as an explanation of Buddhist sounds.

Mirror, no discussion and criticism.

Let's look at the Mass Department again: there is no classic when the Mass Department came to China, but only a Maha Buddhist law. There is nothing left in India's teaching, but the teaching of this school may be found in Vishnu and other classical comprehensive theories. This department says it has basic knowledge; In the eyes of knowledgeable scholars, this fundamental knowledge is Aryan knowledge.

It is said that everything comes from the throne room, and all seven theories come from China. Among them, the theory of wisdom is about rules. All other hexapod theories are related to wisdom. Therefore, wisdom is "body" and six principles are "foot". These theories are all about teaching, such as the theory of law, the theory of body and foot, and the theory of color. By color method? What the heart does is dharma, but the heart doesn't respond and doesn't act. This seems to be the end of all the laws that advocate materialism, but later. The theory of Mahayana; Some people advocate that the heart should be guided by the heart, the color should be guided by the heart, and the heart should not act accordingly, rather than doing nothing. This is the various laws at the end of the idealist "The True Nature of the Heart", which later developed into the Mahayana knowledge transformation theory (note 10? )。 The theory, materials and organization of the Ministry have made great progress and become the innovative school of Hinayana school, which is far from the fundamental seat. There are five points, that is, the legal body is equal, the three realms are true, and there are points of inaction, which can be described as dualists; He also advocated that infinitesimal (atom) gave birth to various laws, which can also be said to be materialistic realism. Others, such as meridian color center, intensive perception and seed theory; The lack of accumulation of calves does not come from me; Positive? The method of nondestructive measurement of parts: the poor life and death of the Ministry of Land and Resources. These thoughts all came into being in this period. All this has to do with? There is a close relationship between epistemology and epistemology.

In short, everyone thinks that there is a spiritual body that lasts for life and death. Although the name is different, the entity is just one thing. This is not only the law of Buddhist belief, but also the various sects in India? They all admit that there is such a thing as a rotator. For example, eight-knowledge chanting: "Be the master after you go". From this? It seems that in the whole Buddhism, as long as we take the wisdom of Buddha as our foothold, we can satisfy different opinions? Chuan, although each sect has its own special advantages.