Objective: To establish bourgeois democratic politics and take the capitalist road.
Kang Youwei's ideals and political opinions are mainly embodied in his book Great Harmony. Kang Youwei was a famous representative who sought truth from the west at the end of 19 and a leader of the Reform Movement of 1898. Kang Youwei advocated political reform and put China on the capitalist road. He believes that the reform of tax policy is mainly to "expand business by cutting export taxes, so as to comfort people." He lashed out at the lijin tax, arguing that it is not good for business, agriculture and the country and must be abolished. He said, "There is nothing more harmful to doing business in the mainland than lijin. Businessmen all over the world have suffered for a long time." It is pointed out that "the source of Lijin agricultural workers is the loss of wealthy businessmen outside." It is not only based on fundraising, but also full of services, and the country has not benefited from it. "He advocates collecting stamp duty to open up financial resources, while holding state-owned enterprises such as banks and postal services instead of lijin tax. Kang Youwei believes that the prosperity of business can make the country rich and strong, and the ruler must "protect the business", and the key to protecting the business lies in light taxes. Pointing out that "followers of China are mistaken for the end of repression" is just to embarrass them by paying heavy taxes. As for taxing the export of our enterprises, it is more important than taxing the foreign population. This is contrary to the way countries protect business. Is the business safe? " Kang Youwei's light tax thought developed into no tax theory in the later period. In "The Book of Great Harmony", he argued that "the public has never collected the tax of one person, sweeping away the sufferings of all countries in the world." This view is actually a fantasy beyond reality.
Constitutional contribution
1. Introduce the concept of governing the country according to the constitution.
Before the Reform Movement of 1898, the feudal system in China existed for more than 4,000 years, that is to say, there was no law and no "rule of law". However, the law comes from the monarch and the power is higher than the law. As a ruling tool, law binds subjects but not monarchs, introduces rituals into law, and maintains the feudal hierarchy based on families. When western bourgeois democracy and countries were established one after another, and human rights concepts such as freedom, equality and fraternity were introduced to China at the end of 19, China was still a society where the emperor had a constitution and the monarchy was supreme. Kang Youwei put forward a legal concept for the first time, that is, constitution, which contains the meaning of restricting absolute monarchy. He believes that the political system of a country can be divided into autocracy, constitutionalism and * * *. In an authoritarian regime, "one monarch" and "several ministers govern the country", while a constitutional regime is "one monarch and one million people". Therefore, the "constitution" is the "road to reform." China people who studied abroad or sent overseas in the early days also suggested reforming internal affairs and learning from the western political system. However, it is often a simple introduction to the system, and they do not realize the role of the Constitution in restricting monarchical power and confronting feudal autocracy. From Kang Youwei's advocacy of constitutional monarchy to the end of the Qing Dynasty, despite the repetition of * * * harmony, monarchy, democracy and autocracy, all previous governments started with constitutionalism and recorded the basic principles of a country's politics in the constitution, which should be attributed to the first generation of advocates who ruled the country according to the constitution.
2. Advocate constitutional monarchy
Kang Youwei opposed absolute monarchy and advocated constitutional monarchy. He believes that the authority of the monarch is infinite "with geometric axioms" and advocates that "one government stands for politics and democracy does not stand." He also said: "The relationship between monarch and minister is based on the law of man. Some people made laws, and then there were ministers. Today, this legislative power belongs to the public, and the so-called equal employment law is also the most beneficial to mankind. " Therefore, Kang Youwei clearly put forward the concept of identity equality as the theoretical basis of bourgeois democratic constitutionalism in China.
Before and after the Reform Movement of 1898, Kang Youwei's choice of constitutional mode changed. Before the Reform Movement of 1898, he advocated a centralized constitutional monarchy, similar to Japan and Germany. But after the Reform Movement of 1898, he advocated a virtual monarch, similar to Britain. During the Reform Movement of 1898, he thought that the "reform" should be based on the heart of Russia and the Meiji government of Japan. The former is intended to emphasize its top-down reform model, while the latter refers to the constitutional monarchy established after the Meiji Restoration in Japan. Until 1906, Kang Youwei also analyzed in The Evolution of France that (France and Germany) were created at the same time, but their strength was different from the latter, which was mainly determined by whether the monarchy could be centralized.
3. Promote checks and balances of power
Collegiate deliberation and decentralization are special means to limit centralized rule in a traditional or rational way. They contributed to modern administration and constitutional politics. As the most magnificent scene in the history of world constitutionalism, the French Revolution clearly stated that "any country without separation of powers and protection of rights has no constitution". Kang Youwei affirmed the rationality of the theory of decentralization and checks and balances in theory very early. In the Public Law of Practice (former 1888) written before the Reform Movement of 1898, Kang Youwei thought from the geometric principle that "everyone on the earth, from ancient times to the present, is not in the system of mutual opposition." He believes: "If legislation is made in accordance with the principle of' conformity and disobedience', those who make the earth ancient and modern will have the ability to counter others, while others cannot counter others. Then there must be people who are good at power and make a fortune, living under power, and those who are countered by power will suffer. " In the book "Orderly Reform, Begging for Quick Breaks to Save the Danger" drafted by Song Bolu, the representative of an imperial consultant, he particularly pointed out the main content of the separation of powers: "Taiwei discusses state affairs, that is, the separation of powers. The three powers are officials who discuss politics, administrative officials and judicial officials. The regime of the old country is also the body of the Jews. Politicians are like hearts, politicians are like brothers and sisters, and judiciaries are like eyes and ears, each guarding his official and then doing things. " At the same time, he opposed the overlapping of institutions, and thought that China's disadvantage was "too much management and too few officials".
4. Civil rights thoughts and political views
Before Kang Youwei, China had the idea of "people-oriented", but he didn't have the idea of civil rights. Kang Youwei absorbed the western liberal concept of civil rights and emphasized civil autonomy.
Kang Youwei systematically put forward his own view of civil rights in the book "Public Law Book Catalogue Summary and Practical Public Law Encyclopedia". He believes that all men are born equal and full of differences at the same time. These people who are full of differences are independent and autonomous, and should be regulated by "equal laws". He not only advocated equality between the young and the old, equality of friends (governing the country and discussing public laws), but even equality between the monarch and the people. In the book The Truth about Monarchs and Their Ministers, he argued: "The people who set monarchs think they are their own defenders. Guy is like two people who have an intersection, and he has found another person as a mediator. Therefore, everyone is a minister, and more than one person can be collectively referred to as a monarch. Comparing the monarch to a witness in a contractual relationship, instead of using the monarch as the legal source of all social relations in the past, was a great progress in thought at that time.
5. Advocate local autonomy.
Based on the theory of civil autonomy, it advocates local autonomy.
He thinks: "China's serious illness lies in the government acting on behalf of the people and not listening to the people's autonomy", "The significance of legislation is to think of the country, not the people, but not to seek chaos and governance. There are big officials without small officials, state officials without township officials, state administration without civil affairs, and generation governance without autonomy. " The local autonomy advocated by Kang Youwei is similar to "feudalism of the ancients". "But the ancients, a troubled times, have the world, have the battle of selfishness, so it is not feasible. Today, the feudal people are peaceful, the people are self-governing, the public is discussing, and everyone is seeking their own public welfare, so the geographical advantage is greatly improved and the manpower is greatly improved. " He also put forward a specific frame of reference, that is, "adopting the system of English, German, French and Japanese because of the old customs of villages and towns", and taking "one game with more than 10,000 people in ten miles", or the specific design of villages and towns, L and so on. At that time, local autonomy was proposed to oppose the traditional unified state structure in China. Local autonomy is conducive to mobilizing local enthusiasm, reducing the burden on the central government, promoting local political clarity and forming a restraining force on the central administration. Moreover, local autonomy is based on the rule of man, which is qualitatively different from China's separatist autonomy or local autonomy maintained by the rights of gentry and clan. From the legal and administrative traditions of China, there are many norms for maintaining state order, such as "the law of governing officials" and local norms, but their starting point is "governing the people" rather than "governing the people". Local self-government with the goal of "rule by the people" began with the enlightenment of the Reform Movement of 1898 represented by Kang Youwei. [20]
Constitutional thought
The evolution of Kang Youwei's early thoughts experienced a tortuous process from Confucianism to Buddhism and Taoism, and then from Buddhism and Taoism to Western learning. Due to the influence of family environment, Kang Youwei began to receive orthodox Confucian education at an early age.
Because of his adherence to Confucian orthodoxy, Kang Youwei consciously abandoned some democratic ideas prevailing in modern western countries. For example, starting from the different cultural origins of China and the West, he pointed out: "There are two differences between China and the West: one is the trend and the other is the custom. The two are different, and China's right and wrong cannot be tied together. " . Although he mainly criticized "China's persistence in etiquette and his weaknesses. Taixi respects the virtuous and can be strong, but after all, he thinks that "fortunately, the study of sages is deeply rooted in the hearts of the people, so it can be maintained until the Qing Dynasty. "
The second source of Kang Youwei's conservative constitutional thought is his "Tongzhi Complex", that is, the kingship of China. Kang Youwei said in "Grateful Life for Seventy Years" (1927): "I am a seaside humble. Thirteen is a scholar, but he is not flashy. Because I am 40 years old, I know nothing about it. The first emperor chose my minister in obscurity, and my advisers relied on reform and self-improvement, so I am grateful to them. Later, when Liang Qichao tried to cooperate with the revolutionary party, Kang Youwei strongly opposed it and accused Liang Qichao of failing his kindness. The reform advocated by Kang Youwei is still a dispute resolution mechanism within the ruling class, and it is a self-"reform", which has not risen to revolution. If the "Institutional Bureau or Qindian" is the institution that Kang Youwei once stayed in during the Reform Movement of 1898 to participate in the political reform directed by the central government of the Qing Dynasty, then after the Revolution of 1911, because the imperial system was overthrown, he still insisted on safeguarding the interests of the monarch until he instigated the restoration, which fully showed his conservative side.
Calligraphy thought
Later generations know Kang Youwei on the basis of the Reform Movement of 1898. Kang Youwei's contribution to calligraphy art is no less than his work on the political stage. He is not only an outstanding politician, but also a great book critic after Ruan Yuan and Bao. In the 15th year of Guangxu (1889), Guang Yi and Zhou Shuang were written, which comprehensively and systematically summarized a book on stele studies in theory and put forward the theory of "respecting steles", which greatly praised the stele studies in Han, Wei and Six Dynasties and had a far-reaching impact on the prosperity of stele calligraphy.
Kang Youwei's career achievements involve many aspects and have amazing achievements. His writings alone have more than 7 million words, full of romantic features, and have been compiled into Poems of Mr. Nanhai. There are five masterpieces, namely "Stay in the Capital and Stay in the Governors", in which he is very concerned about the fate of the country in peril and is full of heroism. His political essays broke the traditional classical Chinese style, and Wang Yang was wanton and rambling, which created Liang Qichao's "new style". His main works include Kang Zi Pian, A Study of New Learning and Pseudo-Classics, A Study of Confucius' Political Reform, A Study of Japanese Political Reform, A Book of Great Harmony, Travels of Eleven European Countries, etc. However, for many years, it is rare to see the whole picture of Kang Youwei's works. People of the hour in modern history, such as Zeng Guofan, Zuo and Li Hongzhang, have not only published complete works, but also published memorials, letters from home, political essays and unpublished manuscripts. Behind them, they are extremely tragic and brilliant, while Kang Nanhai, who is well versed in China and the West and has a broad world outlook, has been given the cold shoulder.
After the failure of political reform, Kang Youwei began to travel around the world. The "Kang Youwei Island" seen in Sweden today is enough to witness his extensive travel, and Kang Youwei has thus become one of the great travelers in modern China history. Wu Changshuo once carved a seal for him: "One hundred days of reform, sixteen years of national subjugation, around the earth, four continents, thirty-one countries, six hundred thousand miles". His experience of traveling around the world has broadened his mind and knowledge, which is rare among modern intellectuals. Among his students, Liang Qichao, Wang Guowei, Xu Beihong, Liu Haisu and Xiao Xian all made achievements in the field of literature and art, which shows that Kang Youwei is also a great educator.
As a calligraphy giant in the late Qing Dynasty, Kang Youwei totally denied the series of calligraphy, advocated the consciousness of "respecting monuments", initiated a new trend, and proposed "belittling the Tang Dynasty" to obliterate the calligraphers' creation in the Tang Dynasty for hundreds of years. Finally, he felt that it was too extreme. It is difficult for an accomplished theorist to become a creative master, because theory and practice are complementary and contradictory. Theory needs calm logical analysis, creation needs heartfelt passion, theory emphasizes justice, and creation must be "extreme" to show the establishment of personality. From ancient times to the present, amphibious figures with high attainments in theory and practice like Sun, Su Shi and Mi Fei are extremely rare. Kang Youwei's enlightenment theory is to stand up for his own creation. Judging from the fact that he was once all-powerful in politics and finally defeated in exile, it is also reasonable that he wrote a book with the spirit of Yu Bo in his chest and did not fall in love with Zhao Dong, who was gentle and charming all the way. Besides, before he was born, the development of stele science was surging. Kang Youwei can't tolerate the existence of epigraphy. Even people who write epigraphy with posts like Zhao can't escape frequent ridicule. However, he praised Zhang Yuzhao and praised him to the height of "the first in the country". This shows that his extreme has also caused many omissions, but it must be seen dialectically that it is his extreme that has brought the development of epigraphy to a brand-new historical height.
As far as Kang Youwei's creation is concerned, he has made great efforts in Shimen Ming and Yan, and also participated in the Valley of Stones and the Stone Carvings of Yunfeng Mountain. The writing is mainly flat arc, and the turning point is mainly round. The unique thick, muddy and thick effect of long-front wool is well reflected in his book, which is completely different from Zhao's frustration and rhythmic flow, and also different from He's single-round strength and rare dry pen, which is his uniqueness. As for the publicity of lines, it brings out the turbulence of structure and denies the stable creation, which is also the overall feature of epigraphy in Qing Dynasty. As far as the form of creation is concerned, couplets are the most wonderful, seeing the masculine beauty of momentum and muddy atmosphere. It can be seen that Kang Youwei's brush strokes despise the paste method, all from the tablet. Turning points are often dark and round. Unlike the Jin and Tang dynasties, the knot is beautiful, but it is long and strong, full of momentum and full of the meaning of ancient Chinese. Some people think this is a superficial bluff. Mr. Pan Boying commented that Kang Youwei's words were "like a rolling straw rope", and thought that Kang Youwei's lines were dull, abusive and vain. Kang Youwei advocates a round pen and opposes the opponent's pen in his brushwork, which is a very important reason for his monotonous brushwork. He often starts and closes his pen without sharp points or setbacks. The lifting pressure is not obvious, the line is single and there is no change. When you sketch, you will see a loose void, which is not urgent enough. This is a disease. Lack of change in ink, lack of expression, full ink thickness, white pen, that's all. Judging from his nave works, there is often a sense of bondage in the style of writing, which is caused by the denial of later learning. In essence, his early courses were mainly about Ou Yu.
Guang Yi and Zhou Shuang Tan by Kang Youwei launched a profound "reform" movement in the field of modern calligraphy. Comparatively speaking, his calligraphy creation is better than that of Ruan Yuan and Bao, but personally, there is still a gap between his creation and theoretical achievements, and he is not the most outstanding practitioner of epigraphy.