Analysis of Cabinet System in Ming Dynasty

Since the Qin Dynasty, China's political systems have followed each other. Since then, successive governments have been autocratic, but their governance and political styles are different, and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. In the Ming Dynasty, feudal autocracy reached its peak, and its political system and style, in a word, was a high concentration of power. The "cabinet system" that it created to govern the country with "private ministers" was the concentrated embodiment of the national system in this period. For the "cabinet system" in the Ming Dynasty, there have always been two sides of the argument, and few of them tend to be consistent. This paper attempts to discuss the process of its emergence and the two major drawbacks of the political system in the Ming Dynasty, which is really an unresolved issue.

Looking at the political system of the Ming Dynasty, it is not difficult to see that imitation was basically adopted in the early Ming Dynasty, and its system did not surpass the previous generation and became its own system. "The first day, still yuan system in the book province, comprehensive maintenance. Its officials are in charge, flat, left and right, and participate in politics. The six officials, namely, officials, households, proprieties, soldiers, criminals and workers, are Cao Guan (History of the Ming Dynasty 109 Chronology of Zaifu). Therefore, at this time, the six departments are the functional departments of Zhongshu Province, the length of which is history, but they are subordinate to each other, and Zhongshu Province is the highest administrative organ for comprehensive government affairs. This system is similar to the previous dynasty, with a slight difference. In the Ming Dynasty, the book order was placed in the left and right countries (later renamed Cheng Xiang) instead of princes and princes, and the rank was just a product. In the fifth year of Wang Hao (A.D. 136), "Li Shanchang was the right hand country of China's calligraphy and Xu Da was the left hand country of China's calligraphy" (Ming Shi Lu 1 tune). This setting is about the need to unify the country. At the beginning of Mao's existence, it was a special consideration to honor ministers and name them after their counterparts. At this time, it is assumed that power is monopolized, under the emperor and above the officials. All decrees and letters are transferred from Zhongshu Province to the main political departments of the issuing country. In the early Ming Dynasty, Taizu was a full-time pet. In this case, the situation that the powerful minister is good at politics naturally becomes arrogant. "Ming History" contains 127: "However, Xu Da and others were ordered to conquer, but they did not specialize in saving trouble. Li Shanchang, Hu are just three of them. " Among them, Hu was monopolized by Classical. "When I was a pet, I was alone for several years. If he lives and dies several times, or plays with stones, he will be sealed in the internal and external departments and must study first. If he is ill, he can't smell it. Because he is a runner, he will rush to his door. " Biography of the Ming Dynasty). In the early Ming Dynasty, the system of vertical phase was implemented. Although it was very short and only a few people were appointed, the power of the phase was as great as that of the previous dynasty. In the feudal autocratic era of China, when the relative power was big enough to endanger the imperial power, it was the beginning of the power struggle of the highest ruling class.

Sure enough, in the thirteenth year of Hongwu, the "right-hanging rebellion" was punished. The result of power struggle is that imperial power overcomes relative power. Ming Taizu is determined to abolish the vertical phase system. Since Qin and Han Dynasties, the classic framework of China feudal social and political system was demolished by Taizu. Of course, the public abolition of the ancient system needs to convince the subjects. So Mao Xun said: "Since ancient times, the three ministers have said that six ministers are divided. I haven't heard of a successor. Since the Qin dynasty, he has been hanging and died immediately. Although there were wise men in Han, Tang and Song Dynasties, most of them were autocratic and disorderly. Order good food, set up five courts and six departments, Duchayuan, General Political Department, Dali Temple and other yamen, which are divided into secular affairs and all court affairs. Mao's rhetoric seems grand, but it is not the original intention of the waste phase. Hu has always hated the authoritarian system because of his willfulness and rebellion. Fifteen years after the abolition of the system, that is, in the twenty-eighth year of Hongwu, he still warned his generals: "Work together to establish a government, set up a department and separate the government from the DuchaYuan, and the power belongs to the court. No heir is allowed to re-establish the system, and the corps commander will be invited to place a heavy code "("Shi Ming Tai "is a hard rule, and no one has really talked about the post-Mao phase. This practice is undoubtedly Ming Taizu's pioneering work, which will last for thousands of years, and was abolished by the basic structure of the central government of the feudal dynasty worshipped by the dynasties. This is a comprehensive reflection of Ming Taizu's wisdom and courage. As scholar Yang said: "The system of preserving Mao is based on his own wisdom, not the wisdom of future generations. "With Mao's intelligence, you can exercise your functions and powers, directly unify the six departments, and prepare a bachelor's degree in Diange, just for your inquiry. However, the king of the late Lord grew up in the deep palace and was fresh in politics. The person recommended by the six departments could not make a ruling, so he could not but reuse the bachelor of Diange as an advisory organ. Therefore, the "draft ticket" system is feasible and the "cabinet" is made. "

As can be seen from the above, the Ming Dynasty had a vertical system, which was no different from the previous generation. After the abolition of the vertical system, the "cabinet system" gradually formed. Of course, the cabinet system has not been abolished, and the four auxiliary officials placed by the Taizu dynasty cannot become a "cabinet" in the full sense. Because, at this time, the assistant officer was only the emperor's adviser and did not have the authority to take charge of the common affairs of the world. Their role is nothing more than drafting forgiveness, processing documents and approving investigation and voting. The assistant minister couldn't catch the six punishments he was told in politics.

There are six departments in politics, but the ruling must be the son of heaven. At that time, although "Hanlin Chunfang carefully looked at the company's performance and refuted it" ("Official History of Ming Dynasty"), there were obviously many opportunities. How can only the emperor personally approve and supervise everything? According to the Records of Seventy-four Official Records of the Ming Dynasty, "At the end of September in the seventeenth year of Hongwu, Zhang Wen made a supplementary explanation:" From September 14th to 21st, on the 8th, the internal and external ministries answered 1,660 pieces, accounting for 3,391 pieces. Although some academicians and Confucian scholars tried to refute this promise, it was up to the emperor to decide. How can I personally approve one by one? "Since the waste phase, the most puzzling thing for Mao is that there are many political affairs, and he has no energy to take care of everything. Therefore, "only the imperial edict punishes him, or goes to court to discuss state affairs, and officials personally deliver the edict, write it themselves, and then return to this yamen for execution" (ibid.) Since then, power seems to be in the hands of the emperor alone, but one's energy and intelligence are far from being able to cope. This situation is obviously not the original intention of Mao's abolition. In fact, at the beginning of the abolition, the complicated government affairs did give the rulers at that time a difficult problem, and the subsequent downward shift of power was unexpected. Based on this, Hongwu participated in the pivot in the fifteenth year of "imitating the Song Dynasty system and setting up a college student". The temples at that time were Gai Hua, Wuying, Wenhua, Dongge and Yuan Wen. " Can University Students in Diange present body double, play with stereotypes, look up questions, and approve tickets? And "In the name of giving food to your Excellency, you can always serve in the Emperor's Palace and avoid the Prime Minister" (an official of the Ming Dynasty). It should be pointed out that at this time, the cabinet minister was at a lower level, ranking only fifth. Although he is "serving adults in the emperor's temple", his official status is still an official in imperial academy. Although a college student is a post, it is not an official title, so the "cabinet" cannot be called the official office of the court. In other words, a college student should be the emperor's private minister, which is different from the "cabinet".

Although the Diange implemented the college system and undertook the busy government affairs for the emperor, at this time, outside the cabinet, six departments stood proudly, and the company's government affairs went straight to the sky, and the cabinet ministers just took care of each other. Although he also participated in central affairs, he had no power of adjudication and punishment. According to Liu Jianyan, a later college student, "If there is a chapter in the book, it must be printed in Wenyuan Pavilion", which is not even a seal.

The formal establishment of the cabinet began with Chengzu. Chengzu usurped the throne by force, from the king to the emperor's throne, from the fief to Peiping and then to Nanjing. The regime was unstable, and he was unclear about people and things, so he had to appoint a private minister to assist in government affairs. The easiest way for a private minister to participate in central affairs was to join the cabinet as a "university student." Chengzu entered Nanjing in June of the fourth year. "In September of that year, reading, editing, inspection and other officials participated in machine maintenance, which was called the cabinet" (Volume 73 of Ming History). "Stone read winding, huang huai into the straight pavilion. He told me to study Hu Guang, compile Yang Rong and Yang Shiqi, evaluate Jin Youzi and Hu Yan, and prepare for maintenance (Volume 5 of Ming History). It can be seen that all the people used by Cheng Zu are from the Hanlin Academy, of which half have the qualification of "bachelor", and the rest of the ranks have not yet reached five grades.

There are many reasons why cabinet members gradually change from junior ministers to ministers. Generally speaking, there are two reasons. First, the requirements of the system. It is very important that cabinet ministers are appointed to participate in central affairs and have a high reputation. However, the bachelor's degree and official rank of Diange are not more than five, and the situation is that "the official department of Chengzu is full-time, and the cabinet ministers are not allowed to be replaced" (ibid.). In this way, cabinet ministers can't be promoted for life, but they love it. The more serious it is, the less harm it will do. Therefore, at the local level, it is necessary to increase the title, or to appoint cabinet ministers and take it as the rank of six ministers, so as to raise the rank of cabinet ministers as much as possible. "History of the Ming Dynasty" (volume 147): "The emperor tried to call the net and said," You seven people are waiting day and night, and Jia Erqin sincerely ... because each of them has five clothes. ..... And beginning of spring gave Xu Dengjin clothes, while Shang Shuping, Xu and others thanked him. The emperor said: Xuanhe Misi belongs to this place and serves together every day, which is not under the advantage of Shangshu. Later, he gave five people, including Huang Huai and others, two kinds of gauze clothes to show their respect. In the eyes of the emperor, cabinet ministers are "not under ministers". "This kind of cognition is the key mental preparation for ministers to seize the power of the headquarters in the future and override the six Cao.

Secondly, because I serve the emperor every day, I often discuss with the emperor whether my words are appropriate and what is the purpose of my words, that is, I am appreciated by the emperor, and when I am appreciated, I will appoint him.

Being in an important position and being endowed with authority and power will increase the price of the right to speak. For example, the history of Han and Tang dynasties, the book of Wei and Jin dynasties, and the contribution of Hanlin in Tang dynasty all made it into the body. The cabinet ministers of the Ming dynasty are no exception. Let's take an example to see the rest. When he became an ancestor, he was "equal to seven people, and Rong () was at least alert. One night, Ningxia newspaper was besieged and summoned seven people, all of whom came out. They were proud of being alone, and the emperor took them to play. Rong said: Ningxia is a strong city, and everyone is used to fighting. We have been fighting for more than ten days, and the siege has been solved. The fruit is playing at midnight. Emperor Rong said, "What's the trial?" (Shi Ming 148 Yang Rongchuan). It is not surprising that Yang Rong, the ancestor of Chengzu, was elected as a college student in Wen Yuan Pavilion. Of course, this evolution from a close minister to a minister and from a staff unit to a state organ is not unique to the Ming Dynasty. For example, when the ministers of the Qin dynasty set up posts, the level was very low, but they mainly issued documents in the emperor's temple. By the Han Dynasty, Shangshu had evolved into the emperor's secretarial organization, and the organization gradually expanded and the number of personnel increased, thus infringing on the powers of the three public officials, resulting in the "three officials reserved, and the affairs returned to the Taige". From Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties to Sui and Tang Dynasties, Shangshu jumped from a secretarial institution to the highest administrative organ of the country. Another example is the development trend of the province under the door and the province under the book, which are exactly the same. The formation of cabinet system in Ming Dynasty can be directly traced back to the "Hanlin Sacrifice" in Tang Dynasty. This phenomenon in China's ancient system can be said to be directly derived from a highly centralized autocratic system, a derivative of the supremacy of imperial power in feudal society, and one of the political characteristics of China's feudal society based on "rule by man". The formation of cabinet system in Ming Dynasty is the full embodiment of this feature.

In the early Ming Dynasty, cabinet ministers could not infringe on the powers of six ministries, nor could they concurrently lead other ministries. Taizu and Chengzu were a generation of British lords, and the cabinet ministers at this time, although loud, could not be arrogant. After Injong, with the position of cabinet minister from humble to high, and the rank from low to high, the number of concurrent positions gradually increased. For example, Yang Rong is the Minister of Industry, Yang Shiqi is the Assistant Minister of Industry, Jin Youzi is the Assistant Minister of Industry, and Huang Huai is the General Political Advisor. These four assistant officials were first appointed as cabinet ministers, and then promoted to other officials and ministerial positions. In terms of positions, cabinet ministers are the most important, and in terms of official products, ministers are the most respected. If they are combined into one, the problem of light weight at one end can be solved. In the third year of Qin Jing, Wang Wen entered the cabinet with the official department minister, and the position of cabinet minister changed. The minister is also a cabinet minister, and his position is becoming more and more important. Ming history one. "Nine Volumes" contains: "Cheng Zujian, an official of the Imperial Academy, went straight to the Wen Yuan Pavilion to participate in the maintenance and was promoted to a university degree. At that time, Zhang Shu went directly to command, and there were many failures. Confucianism and ministers are straightforward, and they are prepared for counselors. After Injong, great scholars lived in the Jin Dynasty, guaranteed salary, respected taste and lived close to each other. As for the comments and answers, the ruling was appropriate, and it was learned that the number of votes was drawn up, so the minister was very important, so he was frozen in Han and Tang Dynasties and was not famous. "The Official History of the Ming Dynasty" records that since Jingtai, "six departments have carried on their ambitions, winning everything, and the rights and interests of the cabinet are heavy ... After Jiajing, the handover level of the DPRK was above the" six departments ",and the six departments were changed from the highest functional department of the original government to the Cao cabinet. At this point, the cabinet became the highest government organ in the Ming Dynasty.

The initial position of cabinet ministers as "private ministers" is the inevitable result of state power from outside to inside, from decentralization to centralization. The supreme ruler relies on private ministers to govern the country, which undoubtedly strengthens centralization. In the Ming Dynasty, the further strengthening of this autocracy was obviously achieved through the gradual narrowing of the power of foreign dynasties and the gradual expansion of the power of the cabinet. Cabinet ministers are called "private ministers" for two reasons. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, the assistant minister became a great scholar and his position was uncertain. Generally speaking, they are officials from imperial academy. Therefore, emperors are often selected according to "special" needs, regardless of the expectations and achievements of candidates. In addition, the assistant minister has no fixed office and corresponding subordinates, so he is not a national first-class political institution. They must appear as academicians when they enter the university, and their grades are still subject to their original posts. Cabinet ministers are only part-time rather than full-time.

Private ministers directly enter the imperial palace, and their office places are often in Taige, so they are called "cabinet ministers". Based on the above reasons, the cabinet eventually developed from an intermediary institution to the highest authority of the dynasty. From this point of view, the high concentration of kingship seems to have ended. Actually, it is not. Although the cabinet set up a department in the freshman year, which is different from the six departments outside the imperial court, there is still a very important link in the operation of the political power that must not be omitted, that is, the document transfer between the emperor and cabinet ministers is completed by the chamberlain. Compared with the cabinet, the chamberlain posted the drafts of the emperor and cabinet ministers, and only after the emperor "approved the red" could it become a formal order, and the person who sent and received the message was the chamberlain. "However, the draft of the cabinet can only be decided after the approval of the inner prison, and the power has been transferred to the temple people, so the discipline of the court and the advancement and retreat of the scholars have been reversed in their hands" ("Shi Mingzhi Official Records"), the cabinet seized the power gained by the six departments and sneaked away for the eunuchs by showing the opportunity to turn over the documents. It can be seen that the closer the institutions in the autocratic era are to the emperor, the greater their power. If they have power, they will be large and easily moved to state organs, so the power of cardinals will be included.

This evolution is actually a change in power. In the life of political consultation in Ming Dynasty, the two major drawbacks of the cabinet system-eunuch's authoritarian power and cronyism-became the distinctive political characteristics of this period.

As mentioned earlier, the cabinet has gradually become a central institution from a small area to a large area, which is obviously far from the pattern that the cabinet was only an advisory body at the beginning of its creation. According to Liu Jian, a university student, "He stole the cabinet position, so the mansion in Chengde made a contribution to the imperial court and made a ruling on government affairs, which was different from the position of a hundred officials. In the ancestral dynasty, whenever there were consultations, visits or visits, or summoning notes, or Fengtianmen and Zuoshunmen, it was customary to make knees. For example, Emperor Xuanzongzhang was lucky enough to have the cabinet and the throne, so far I dare not sit. Emperor Yingzong looked at the generals and called Li Xian from time to time. Emperor Xian Zongchun also often called, and Gu, or Li, Tai's supervisor and Wynn, to the cabinet to discuss this matter. If there is a secret order on it, seal it with the treasure of the order; If there is a stamp on it, seal it with the Wen Yuan Pavilion until the order is opened. So did the minister and others. So far, things have gradually changed, except for attending classes and reading, although there are as few eunuchs as there are cabinets. In the DPRK, there are eunuchs who must pass orders, eunuchs who pass on clerical officers and eunuchs who make orders. " In this passage, Liu Jian can reveal that the eunuch handed over documents because the cabinet minister could not directly command, and the power of the cabinet was subject to the unspeakable stability of the eunuch. In fact, since the ancestors used eunuchs, eunuchs have gradually removed the six powers occupied by the cabinet. Monarchs in the autocratic era have a common problem, that is, gradually gathering power and returning it to the inside. In the early Ming Dynasty, the power of the Six Departments was transferred to the Cabinet, and then to the "internal supervision". Therefore, the autocratic and chaotic situation in the Ming Dynasty was cheap in its system. The internal reference can influence the cabinet, so cabinet ministers have to attach themselves to the internal reference, and even Zhang, who has been in power for a period of time, has to rely on eunuchs to stabilize the position of records. It was the heyday of eunuch power that Wei Zhongxian's power came to power in the general election. When I visited Ming Yi this winter, I thought that "if you know, there will be no good governance, and you must start from the emperor". It is not necessarily biased to accuse "I think those who are prime ministers are also palace slaves today". In addition, he said: "A wise man, a wise man, treats his residual ointment with fragrance, while a humble man laughs at and curses it." If we pass on the road and write the history of the country well, we will cut into the industry. Therefore, those who let the palace slaves have the reality of being prime ministers will be too embarrassed. " Therefore, the eunuch's disorderly administration is a serious problem, and the cabinet system is undoubtedly the institutional premise of this drawback.

On the other hand, the bachelor joined the cabinet to participate in maintenance, and he acted as the prime minister, without the name of prime minister. Don't those unknown people actually do things beyond their rights but beyond their authority? Therefore, a bachelor's degree is not as good as a cardinal. Why are ministers willing to take the exam? If they are unwilling to accept it, they will attack the students. Although the position of cabinet ministers is more and more respected, and it is difficult to be relegated to the position of emperor, it is difficult to be inferior to it. Then the land of the cabinet became the place where courtiers argued, and the disorder of the country was inevitable. "History of the Ming Dynasty" 230 biographies praised: "After the Ming Dynasty, the proponents divided Cao into friends and led the ministers to advance and retreat. On the contrary, it is a struggle, and it is not allowed to discuss clearly, but the struggle is high. Therefore, the land that was attacked at that time was the land of attack and the country was in chaos. "

Looking at the political system of the Ming Dynasty, it is not difficult to see that the abolition of the prime minister by Taizu and the construction of temples and pavilions by ancestors are typical ways in which state power gradually reverts to the inside. The center of political power is from the outside to the inside, and the ultimate goal must be internal supervision. All functional departments outside the imperial court were subordinate to Cao, and autocracy reached its peak. All systems rise and develop for a reason. My essay only starts with the cabinet system in the Ming Dynasty, and explores the reasons for its development, so as to examine the emergence of various political characteristics in the Ming Dynasty. These characteristics originated from the emergence of a system, and the quality of the system is the premise of political quality.

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