The question is-the question is, how do we "find" the problem? How can we "have" problems? So there is still a lot of work to be done before the problem is determined. It is not easy to find a question that interests you, is interesting and easy to write. I have to read a lot of books and think a lot of things ... the mole is not far from this road, but he may not realize it and rush by. The key is not to form a suitable problem. 1. Should the paper run through the whole preparation process? No need. A classmate is also worried about the paper. He found it very, very difficult to follow his ideas, but he didn't want to start over because he had spent so much time. I told him that if you don't look back now, the harder you work, the more trouble you will have. That's why you do the opposite. So, when you find yourself in trouble and you can't solve it yourself, stop at once. Still in a hurry. 2. How to make a writing plan? It doesn't need to be too detailed, but there is a timetable. It took four or five months to finish it in three days, and the result can be imagined. 3. What is a philosophical thesis? This problem is more complicated. Because there can be many different types of philosophical papers. As far as philosophical history papers are concerned, a philosophical paper can describe and analyze the thoughts of philosophers. Generally speaking, when beginners or just start writing papers, most of them write like this. In fact, this is a basic skill. It is not easy to make the philosopher's thinking clear and have his own analysis. It requires you to be very familiar with the philosopher's thoughts and have a good understanding of the history of philosophy, so as to analyze the philosopher's thoughts in history and reality. This kind of paper is a running account if it is not well written. If you want to write well, you need to have "problems". Find an interesting question or an interesting theory in the philosopher's ideological theory. A philosophical paper can also mainly analyze the significance of philosopher's thought. The former category is "history" and this category is "theory". This type of paper is more difficult than the last one, because we need to have our own ideas, and often we don't have many ideas ourselves, or many of our own ideas can't be said. Therefore, it is best to write a paper on the combination of history and theory. Problems, contents, meanings, limitations, analysis ... are easier to write and easier to write well. In addition, a philosophical paper can also be an analysis of a person, a school, a general philosophical problem or a philosophical concept ... My experience is that a paper should have a unified problem, and a discussion around this problem should have a beginning, a continuation, a turning point and a combination. In other words, there should be a transition between chapters and paragraphs. Only in this way can the paper become a whole.
The methods that should be paid attention to in writing philosophical papers: finding problems and solving them.
1. Find the problem: chat with others or send text messages.
Learning objectives: analysis and demonstration. Find problems (including finding problems).
2. Solve the problem (including canceling the problem that is not a problem):
Learning objectives: problem solving, technical resources for problem solving and their use (library, electronic database, Internet use).
3. Practical exercises for finding and solving problems: oral reports, small written reports, paper proposals and larger papers.
Learning objectives: discussion and criticism. How to write a general term paper? The writing method of thesis proposal.
Model essay on philosophical papers:
In the history of western philosophy, rationalism until Hegel was called classical rationalism. Western classical rationalism has been seriously challenged by irrational thoughts in modern times and modern times, so that it is almost on the verge of decline. Although rationalism slowly recovered in extreme atrophy after the surge of irrational thoughts, the form and connotation of contemporary western rationalism in revival are very different from its classic form. The transcendence of rationalism from its classical form to modern form has its inevitable historical reasons. It is undoubtedly of great theoretical significance to understand the historical evolution of western classical rationalism.
First, the source of western classical rationalism-Greek rationalism
Philosophy is essentially a rational cause. When Taylor, the first philosopher in the history of western philosophy, declared that "water is the starting base of all things", Taylor was using his rationality, and the judgment that "water is the starting base of all things" was undoubtedly a rational judgment. Because this judgment not only contains an abstract concept that can be used as a philosophical category-"starting point", but also contains an epistemological basis and order: there are countless objects and things in the world, and the sum of these objects and things constitutes a whole world, which is infinitely diverse and unified, and its unified basis is water, which is the cause and source of all things. "Water is the beginning of everything" is the result of Taylor's observation and analysis of a single specific thing for thousands of times and a series of abstract generalizations of sensory experience. Therefore, this judgment embodies the unity and transcendence of human thinking and reveals the universality and unity of things. This is also the basic feature of human rational thinking and philosophy. As Hegel said, "Where the universal man is regarded as an all-encompassing existence or where the universal man is held or the thought appears in a universal way, then philosophy begins there." It can be said that the judgment that "water is the starting point of all things" raised the first banner of Greek rationality. From then on, believing that reason can understand and grasp the origin of the world has become a simple belief in early Greek philosophy. Philosophy abandoned the irrational beliefs and fantastic legends about the creation of heaven and earth in ancient Greece, and developed along the rational road of tracing the origin of the world.
However, whether in Taylor School or in Ionian School to which Taylor belongs, their exploration of the origin of all things still lingers between rationality and sensibility, and their rational speculation is still accompanied by the echo of sensibility. Hegel said: "The water of speculation is established in a spiritual way, not as the reality of feeling. So there is a debate about whether water is the universality of feeling or the universality of concept (Lecture Notes on the History of Philosophy, Volume I, page 184). That is to say, on the one hand, water, as a philosophical category, reveals the origin of the world, which should be universal and speculative, that is, to grasp the whole world at a highly abstract level of thinking, but Taylor's water "has its certainty or form anyway" and has not completely got rid of the individual's sensibility. "The concept of water still floats in our minds" (ibid., p. 66), so there is a contradiction between the concept that water is universal (intangible) and its existence. (ibid., p. 184) This contradiction has always been the theme that troubled early Greek philosophy. During this period, Heraclitus, the unknown philosopher of Effeus, discovered the rational law of "logos" governing things with his "metaphysics", but his ontological philosophy of "fire is the starting point of things" still dragged a bright perceptual tail.
On the contrary, in the Pythagorean school in southern Italy, "they don't derive the starting point from the objects they feel" and "the starting point and reasons they put forward are used to guide them to reach a higher level of reality" ("Ancient Roman Philosophy" on page 39), and they think that number is the starting point of everything. In this way, the Pythagorean school created a way of thinking in the history of ancient Greek philosophy that did not rise from sensory experience to universal rational generalization, but fell from some abstract concepts to perceptual things. The Pythagorean school has also studied the theory of the opposition of things. They think that opposition is inherent in things, there are ten things, and the most important thing is limited and infinite opposition. In essence, the opposition between "finiteness" and "infinity" is the original expression of the opposition between "rationality" and "irrationality" in the history of western philosophy. Because according to the Pythagorean school theory, the world is by no means an infinite and unknowable chaos, but it is knowable, and it has some internal "order" and "structure", and this order and structure obey the laws of mathematics, that is, "everything else is modeled by numbers in terms of its overall nature" (ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, page 37). Mathematics is considered to represent the rational function of human beings in ancient Greece and modern Europe. On the basis of in-depth study of mathematics, the Pythagorean school has also extensively studied astronomy, acoustics and medicine, and tried to explain the world with these scientific achievements. Therefore, we can call Pythagoras the first rationalist school in ancient Greece, and the word "rationality" is its original scientific spirit. Rationalism is a philosophical road that advocates understanding and explaining nature with science.
The Pythagorean School opened up a rationalism road to explain perceptual experience with abstract principles in the barriers of early natural philosophy in ancient Greece, but the development of Pythagorean School's rationalism spirit is still very limited, because their abstraction of quantity has not completely separated from perceptual nature such as "pebble number". It was not until the development of Elijah School that Greek reason found the holy land of her "pure thinking" and caused opposition with perceptual experience. In this regard, Lenin once pointed out: "What is a dialectical method?" "'We are here' (in Elijah School) discovered the beginning of dialectics; At the same time, we also found the opposition between thinking and phenomenon or perceptual existence. " (Notes on Philosophy, p. 276)
Mendini, the founder of Elijah School, divided philosophy into two categories, one is about opinions and the other is about truth. Opinion philosophy is to find a way to know the origin of all things in perceptual things. Parmenides thinks that the knowledge provided by this way is uncertain and untrue. So he advised people to leave this road: "Keep your mind away from this research method, don't take this habitual road, take roaring ears and tongues as the criterion, and use your reason to solve disputes and arguments." (Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophy, page 50-5 1 page) The philosophy of truth is a rational philosophy that thinks about "existence" with reason. The knowledge provided by this philosophy is certain and true, so it exists, and "the existence of things that don't exist is impossible" (same book, page 5 1). Elijah school can be said to be a more thorough rationalist school in early ancient Greece. One of their major characteristics is to pursue the rational certainty of knowledge and oppose the individuality and uncertainty of perceptual things.
However, it should be pointed out that in Araxagora, the pioneer of atomism philosophy, the word "rationality" was used as the reason for the movement and change of things. According to Araxagora (seed theory), reason (slave Nous, that is, mind) is a finer seed. Because of its function, the seeds move in the vortex, so that some seeds combine and some seeds separate, and finally the movement and change of everything in the world are formed. "Rationality" is used as the principle of movement in Araxagora's philosophy, but "it is not a spiritual entity that arranges the world from the outside." (Hegel's Lecture Notes on the History of Philosophy, Volume I, page 343) This principle was inherited by democritus and transformed into the atomistic philosophy of atoms moving in the void. In the philosophy of atomism, "rationality" touches the relationship between perceptual knowledge and rational knowledge in the form of dialogue with perceptual knowledge. Demok Park Jung Su believes that ignorance (perceptual knowledge) can only understand the phenomenon of things, and only truth (rational knowledge) can understand the essence of things, thus determining the position of reason in epistemology.
After the Elijah School, the philosophy of the wise headed by protagoras rose again in the Greek land. The philosophy of the wise is just the opposite of the rationalism of Elijah School. They exempted the reliability of sensory experience and spread relativism philosophy everywhere. Under the banner of "man is the measure of everything", they seriously shake the certainty of all kinds of knowledge, and think that all knowledge is transferred by subjective feelings, just like "those who are cold in the air feel cold, those who are not cold feel cold".
Contrary to the philosophy of the wise, Socrates. Socrates stood at the starting point of the wise man, but took the completely opposite road to the wise man, trying to grasp man from the perspective of thinking and advocating exploring truth in the "spiritual world". When discussing "what is virtue" with people, Socrates led people to break away from the relativism laid by the wise men, adhere to the rational guidance and pursue the certainty of knowledge. He believes that "for virtue", "no matter how many and how different they are, they all have the same nature that makes them virtues." (Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, page 153) This is the certainty of the concept.
The philosophical chapter initiated by Socrates was deepened by Plato, who established a philosophical mansion of thoughts on the basis of Socrates' conceptualism. Plato's theory of ideas completed the criticism of the philosophy of the wise and re-established the authority of thought in exerting its philosophical function. As Hegel said: "The greatness of Plato's theory lies in that the content can only be filled by thought, because thought is universal, and common things (namely * * phase) can only be produced by thought or grasped by thought, and can only exist through thinking activities. Plato defined this universal content as an idea. " (Lecture Notes of Philosopher Han, Volume II, page 195) In order to grasp the concepts of concept and structure, Plato formulated his Dialectics. Of course, Plato's dialectics "is not the kind of dialectics that confuses ideas, but the dialectics that moves in pure ideas, which is the movement of logical ideas." (ditto, page 199) Even Plato's The Immortality of the Soul aims to confirm the inner essence of thinking and hold high the authority of reason: he thinks that reason is the highest part of the soul and logical power is the highest attribute of the soul. Human knowledge is only the memory of the soul to the conceptual world after the birth of human body. Although perceptual experience can stimulate this kind of memory, it is a serious obstacle to understanding people. Only by clearing away emotional distractions can people understand the truth. Plato's philosophy not only systematically expounded the ontology of rationalism, but also systematically expounded the epistemology of rationalism. In Plato's philosophical system, the natural combination of truth, goodness, beauty and reason has become the rational source of western philosophy for thousands of years.
But Plato's philosophy did not complete the scientific construction of rationalism in ancient Greek philosophy, and the difficulty lies in the relationship between ideas and concrete things. This relationship has always been a difficult problem for Plato's philosophy. Although Plato tried to find it, he failed to step into the truth.
Aristotle's philosophy is the peak of the development of rationalism in ancient Greece, because this encyclopedic scholar built a magnificent speculative philosophy system in the history of ancient Greek philosophy, "critically examining everything and turning everything into thoughts". A major feature of Aristotle's philosophical system is that he cares about certain concepts everywhere, raises rationalism's pursuit of certainty to the height of philosophical ontology, and summarizes the essence of individual aspects of spirit and nature into a series of rational principles in a simple way. Aristotle noticed all things and phenomena in the universe with his broad philosophical vision, and then focused on the focus of "what is existence" to study the rational ontology of "existence is existence". Aristotle's ontological philosophy is a combination of ancient Greek empiricism and rationalism, but it is rationalism in essence. As Hegel said, "People can say that Aristotle is a thorough empiricist and a thoughtful empiricist." "But his experience is comprehensive, that is to say, he didn't miss any details. Instead of grasping one rule after another, he grasped them at the same time ... When experience is grasped in its synthesis, it is the concept of speculation. " (Lecture Notes on the History of Philosophy, Volume II, page 308) and "Aristotle only talked about rationality, not the special nature of rationality." (The same page, page 30 1) It can be said that ancient Greek rationalism reached its climax in Aristotle's Positive Rationality, and then it gradually declined. Although Epicurus and Stoicism continued the opposition between empiricism and rationalism, it was only a faint sunset.
Second, the change and return of rationality-rational theology in the Middle Ages and rationality in the Enlightenment Age
Aristotle's philosophy developed Greek rationality to its peak. In his philosophy, human reason and the essence of the world have reached the metaphysical unity and integration. Plato and Aristotle's rationalism combined truth, goodness and beauty. Reason not only shoulders the significance of explaining the universe, but also bears the significance of explaining human social life and spiritual life. Although rationalism in ancient Greece tried to explain the world with science, the level of scientific development in ancient times was not enough to explain the structure of soul and the relationship between soul (that is, spirit) and matter. In a word, this is the true essence and mystery of type impurity. With the decline of ancient society, the decay of slavery and social unrest, people have different basic and fundamentally opposing views on the same world and the same social reality. Many people have doubts about traditional philosophy and shaken the role and function of reason, so in the late period of ancient Greece and Rome, various philosophies of ism and mysticism came into being. These skepticism and mysticism merged with the religious consciousness that rose in the late Roman Empire, which caused the Hellenistic change in the history of western philosophy. Religious philosophers use and distort Aristotle's philosophy to prove the existence of God and the existence of God. Man's rationality has been deprived by God and turned into God's rationality. God has become the embodiment of truth, goodness and beauty and the ontology of the universe, as saint augustinus said: "Supreme, beautiful and capable; Omnipotent; Benevolence, righteousness, concealment, omnipresent; Be beautiful, be firm, be resolute, don't grasp anything, don't change anything, don't update anything, there is no new reason. " (confessions 1) with the rationalization of god, "all other forms of ideology-philosophy, politics and law-were incorporated into theology in the middle ages, making them the main body of theology." (Selected Works of Marx and Engels, Volume IV, page 2565438 +0) Rational theology has turned philosophy into its handmaid and philosophy into a tool of scholasticism and religious theology. And man, deprived of rationality, became an animal with only perceptual original desire and was fried on the altar of rational theology. "purgotorio" (translated as "pure world" in Dante's Divine Comedy) refers to the place where people are purified of their sins after death. In the Middle Ages, all people had to wash here after death, and then they could go to heaven. God whipped those who groaned in pain with the whip of reason. Long Fang, a famous scholar, called the Middle Ages "all-encompassing spiritual and intellectual prisons", while Marx called it "the kingdom of spiritual animals". On the one hand, the variation of rationality makes God possess all rationality, while man is only given the right to be dominated by irrationality-"belief". No matter what is absurd, as long as it is God's will, people have to believe it. "It is because of absurdity that I believe" is the motto of medieval religious philosophy. Although there is a dispute between nominalism and realism in scholasticism, which reflects the light of human rationality from a certain angle, as an ideology as a whole, it still converts to religious theology, which is a diversion of rational theology.
The difference of reason becomes the binary division of reason and belief. But this binary division is by no means an eternal fate, because since God's rationality is the product of human rationality, then God's rationality will not be higher than human rationality in essence. The split between reason and belief has caused great pain in people's thoughts and feelings (because true faith and firm belief must be based on scientific reason), and the painful torture will prompt people who were originally rational to think deeply: Is there a God in the world? Where does God's reason come from? Is it omnipotent? Since god is the best, he will not create evil human beings; Since God is omnipotent, it will also destroy the evil on the earth ... A series of thinking and exploration will inevitably sprout the recovery of human reason, and human reason will never unconditionally surrender to God forever, overcome the variation of reason and re-establish the authority of human reason, which is a historical and logical necessity here.
With the development of productive forces, capitalist relations of production began to grow and develop in the feudal society in the 14 and 5th centuries. Reflected in ideology, human reason is bound to declare war on religious beliefs, and human beings are bound to take back their reason from God. /kloc-At the beginning of the 6th century, the religious reform led by Martin Luther broke out in Germany, which severely hit and shook the Catholic rule as the foundation of feudal forces. The essence of this religious reform is the open rebellion of human reason against faith. Luther translated the Bible from Latin into German, arguing that Christians can interpret the Bible according to their own principles. In this way, the reason of ordinary people has the right to interpret the Bible, opposes blind faith, and makes reason the highest arbiter of all religious disputes. Engels spoke highly of Luther's religious reform, calling it the first decisive battle between the European bourgeoisie and feudal forces.
Corresponding to Luther's religious reform is the revolution caused by Copernicus's sun-centered theory in natural science. The essence of Copernican revolution is still the counterattack of reason to faith, because in the Middle Ages, Aristotle Ptolemy's geocentric theory ruled people's thoughts for a long time. Obviously, this theory has not been scientifically demonstrated, but it is supported by people's experience and irrational beliefs, and religious philosophy uses it to demonstrate theology. Copernicus theory is a bold challenge to theological cosmology and a cry of human reason calling for scientific spirit. After Copernicus, Galileo further integrated observation, experiment, hypothesis, induction and deduction into a systematic experimental scientific method, which built a powerful scientific position for human rational counterattack belief.
If Martin Luther's religious reform kicked off the counterattack of reason to faith, then from the Italian humanistic movement to the eighteenth century, French philosophy pushed this rational struggle to a climax. If faith began to retreat among humanists, but it still had its place after all (because many humanists advocated that "apocalyptic truth" and "rational truth" were equally divided), then faith was defeated by enlightenment scholars in the18th century. A group of "semi-war atheists" headed by Diderot destroyed the last position of faith and made reason win a triumphant March with world historical significance. Cassirer, a famous German philosopher, said in his book Enlightenment Philosophy: "When18th century wants to use a word to describe the characteristics of this power, it is called' rationality'." Rationality "has become the intersection and center of18th century, which expresses everything that this century pursues and struggles, as well as all the achievements made in this century" (Enlightenment Philosophy, pp. 3-4). In this century, everything must defend its existence or give up its right to exist before reason. We call the rationality of this era the rationality of the Enlightenment.
The main characteristics of reason in the Renaissance and Enlightenment were, first of all, to point the finger at obscurantism of blind faith and worship of authority, to advocate scientific and bold thinking, and to encourage people to boldly doubt religious classics and theological dogma. The Italian humanist Weimes said that man "has a mind full of wisdom, shrewdness, knowledge and rationality. It is resourceful and has created many great things by itself. " Montesquieu, a French enlightenment scholar, believes that our minds are born to think, that is, to understand things. However, for a long time, human reason has been deprived of its legal rights by religious beliefs. Now, according to the enlightenment scholars, since reason is the natural nature and inevitability of human mind, then human nature has the right to restore this natural ability. Montagni, a French humanist, used skepticism as a weapon to call on people to think boldly, oppose all church authority and regain human reason from religious theology.
Secondly, the rationalists in the Renaissance and the Enlightenment also demonstrated the foundation, function and role of rationality, holding that the objective world is the object of rational knowledge, not the object of belief, and science is the tool and method to play the role of rationality. The scientific understanding of nature and the discovery of laws will enable people to gain truth in reason and freedom in action. Therefore, the enlightenment thinkers tried to carry out the scientific spirit and methods in various fields and forge people's weapons to rule nature.
Thirdly, enlightenment thinkers affirmed the existence and value of individuals from the moral and ethical aspects, and opposed religious theology to treat people as religious handmaiden with only original sin. Their slogan is: "I am a person, I have all the characteristics of human beings." Therefore, the rationality advocated by enlightenment thinkers is essentially a humanistic thought, which opposes religious morality in ethics and asceticism in real life.
However, the rationalism of enlightenment thinkers inevitably has the unique historical limitations of their time. This is the first kind. They absolutely reflect the rationality of their own time, advocate an abstract rationality that is super-era, super-nation and super-culture, and ossify the rationality that is developing and changing in history. Secondly, the enlightenment thinkers advocated human rationality to oppose God's grace and revelation; But in order to resist religious asceticism, it is necessary to expand people's sensibility and enhance people's primitive desires. In this way, there will inevitably be conflicts between the sensibility of reason, thus breeding and producing the internal division of reason itself.
Third, the internal division of reason-empirical reason and innate reason.
At the same time of the formation of enlightenment rationality, rationality germinated and developed an internal division in the philosophical world view, which is the opposition between empirical rationality and innate rationality.
Empirical rationality is a rational trend of thought revealed by empirical philosophy, and its emergence and development are related to the fate of empirical philosophy. Empiricism philosophy is a powerful force of western classical rationalism, which is based on experience. Western classical rationalism, from Plato and Aristotle to medieval theology, paid attention to the rational components in the process of human cognition, because at that time, the focus of philosophical research was to establish an ontological philosophical building, and philosophical research focused on analysis and abstract logical speculation. Although different philosophers emphasize the exploration of the empirical component in human understanding, on the whole, this exploration is relatively weak.
With the development of productivity and modern natural science, western classical rationalism pays more attention to the study of the source and foundation of rationality, opening up a new direction of cognitive research. Therefore, with the in-depth study of the source, scope and objective validity of knowledge, two fundamentally opposite viewpoints and systems have been formed, namely empiricism and rationalism.
Empiricism is mainly produced in Britain, not only because Britain is the birthplace of modern natural science, but also because it has a historical tradition of nominalism in philosophy. British empiricism is essentially an empirical rationality, that is to say, it tries to define the scope of rationality with experience and seal the connotation of rationality within the scope of experience. Locke has a famous saying: "Everything in reason is in experience." Locke's words are the banner and slogan of empiricism. The concept of empirical rationality reached its peak in david hume. Hume takes the concept of cause and effect, the axis of rational thinking, as the breakthrough point, and denies that the concept of cause comes from rational deduction, thus comprehensively attacking rationalism and proving that cause and effect is only people's habitual association, and its essence is people's minds' familiarity with the experience of successive things. Some researchers believe that experience fundamentally opposes the function of rational thinking, and rational thinking is not the real essence of empiricism. In fact, British empiricists are also vigorously advocating rational ability. Bacon, the founder of empiricism, thinks that the essence of philosophy is a rational work. It studies abstract concepts from sensory impressions. But Bacon emphasized the role of sensory experience in cognition. It is believed that the arrangement of human reason to sensory experience is only an understanding ability that everyone has from sensory experience. Even Hume did not completely deny the role of rationality, but whether the role of government rationality is higher than sensibility. His famous saying "Reason is the slave of passion" embodies the essence of empirical reason.
The historical development of British empiricism from Bacon, Hobbes to Locke, Becker to Hume profoundly demonstrated the role of sensory experience in human understanding and greatly expanded the connotation of western classical rationalism from one side. However, because empiricism sticks to the barriers of experience, it cannot solve the problems of universal inevitability, scientific validity and logical certainty of human understanding, and empirical rationalism is bound to be a one-sided rationalism.
The theoretical space left by empirical rationalism is filled by continental rationalism. The theory of continental rationalism was initiated by Descartes and formed a relatively complete system through Maleblanche, Spinoza and Leibniz. There is also a view in the history of philosophy that mainland rationalism completely denies the role of experience in the process of cognition, which also deviates from the theoretical essence of mainland rationalism. In fact, mainland rationalism also recognizes the role of experience in the cognitive process. Descartes, when discussing the source of ideas, pointed out that one kind of ideas came from the experience world, while Spencer thought that "real ideas" must be consistent with external things. Leibniz went further and pointed out that rational ideas can only be produced under the stimulation of perceptual experience. The crux of the problem is that rationalists believe that the knowledge provided by sensory experience is individual and only probable. Sensory experience cannot provide universal necessary knowledge and guarantee the logical certainty of knowledge, so perceptual knowledge cannot be called scientific knowledge. The universal inevitability and logical certainty of knowledge cannot be found in sensibility, but only in rationality. Descartes put forward the principle of universality and discovered the first principle of "I think, therefore I am". Its purpose is nothing more than to explain that "rationality" must be the only measure to judge authenticity, and only rationality can provide logical certainty, universal inevitability and scientific effectiveness of scientific knowledge. Because the function of reason is to discover unity, only by revising all human knowledge on the scale of reason can a system of truth be formed.
But how can rationality ensure the universal inevitability and logical certainty of knowledge? Rationalists believe that rational ability cannot come from sensory experience, but can only be a natural ability. Descartes believes that this natural ability of reason produces a "natural concept" in the conceptual system, which is the most important concept. Spinoza believes that rational natural ability naturally obtains a "true concept" that must be combined with external things; Leibniz believes that "the concept of talent" has long been hidden in human reason. So we ... ...