Keywords: knowledge economy; Measuring attributes; Unit of measurement; Multiple bookkeeping
First, accounting measurement and its model
Accounting measurement is considered as the core function of accounting, and accounting is a measurement process. The so-called accounting measurement is the process of determining the internal quantitative relationship between items or events through the quantitative relationship and allocating the amount to specific events. That is to say, in enterprise accounting, the internal quantitative relationship of accounting objects is measured, calculated and determined, which can be transformed into financial information and other related economic information that can be expressed in money, thus reflecting the financial situation and operating results of enterprises in a centralized and comprehensive way. Generally speaking, accounting measurement mainly has three conditions: one is time factor, the other is quantity factor and the third is unit factor. In short, quantities are expressed in specific units when appropriate. A complete accounting measurement model, in addition to the measurement object (measured object), also includes two factors: measurement attribute and measurement unit.
MeassursmentAttributes refers to the measurable characteristics or external performance of the measured object, that is, the quantified characteristics or aspects of the measured object. The object of measurement often has many characteristics, so it can be measured according to different measurement scales from many aspects. There are five recognized measurement attributes, namely: historical cost, current cost, current market price, net realizable value and present value of future cash flow. The basis of fair value measurement now refers to the amount that rational parties voluntarily trade in an open and undisturbed market under the conditions of equality and irrelevance. It can be expressed by the current market price or the present value of future cash flow.
MeasurementUnit refers to the specific standard measurement used by measurement objects when measuring a basic attribute. There are two units of measurement to choose from: nominal monetary unit and general purchasing power monetary unit. Nominal monetary unit refers to the legal unit of major currencies circulating in various countries. The general purchasing power monetary unit is based on the general purchasing power or actual exchange rate of currencies of various countries. Compared with the nominal monetary unit, the general purchasing power monetary unit can reflect the influence of price changes on accounting information and maintain the feasibility of accounting measurement results. It can be seen that the existence of general purchasing power monetary unit is based on the occurrence of price changes. If the price remains the same (actually impossible), there will be no choice of measurement units. Based on this, it is one of the important ways to find the relevance of accounting information under the price change by measuring it with the general purchasing power monetary unit. At the same time, the general purchasing power monetary unit is also based on the nominal monetary unit, that is, it is adjusted according to the general price index on the basis of the nominal monetary unit to achieve the purpose of measurement.
Second, the factors affecting the choice of accounting measurement mode
(A) the impact of accounting theory
1, inadaptability of basic accounting measurement theory. The historical cost measurement of traditional accounting is based on the value of labor, the measurement content is the value created and transferred by labor, and the measurement time is when the transaction actually occurs, and it will not be re-measured in the future. This accounting measurement model has the advantages of easy data acquisition, verifiability and objectivity, but it can only measure one side or part of economic matters, and cannot measure economic matters comprehensively, stereoscopically and dynamically. Some transaction results can only be confirmed in the future, such as derivative financial instruments, and some economic resources have the ability to create value in the future, such as human resources. These all need the support of new basic theory of measurement.
2. The impact of accounting objectives. Accounting goal is the logical starting point of accounting theory construction and plays a decisive guiding role in accounting measurement. Shown in: on the one hand; Accounting goal is the cornerstone of accounting measurement theory, and different accounting goal theories will produce different accounting measurement viewpoints; On the other hand, accounting measurement is an important link to achieve accounting objectives. Different accounting measurement models provide different accounting information, which determines the ultimate goal of accounting system operation. The concept of fiduciary responsibility emphasizes the objectivity and reliability of accounting information, and needs to adopt historical cost measurement basis and accrual basis to measure income; However, the concept of decision usefulness emphasizes the relevance of accounting information, and urgently requires the use of fair value as the measurement basis to measure goodwill, human resources and other funds, and reflect the enterprise value with the present value of future cash flows. In the era of knowledge economy, the accounting goal should be the combination of decision usefulness and entrusted responsibility. Because: (1) decision usefulness is more suitable for the era of knowledge economy. In the era of knowledge economy, due to the wide application of communication technology, computer and other information technologies, the capital market is more and more developed, and the capital market has a trend of globalization. Therefore, the usefulness of decision-making is more accurate in expressing accounting objectives. (2) The separation of the two rights recognized by the two viewpoints exists at the same time. In the capital market, both large shareholders and small and medium shareholders can exercise control. Theoretically speaking, the ideal accounting objective view in the era of knowledge economy should be an organic combination of two viewpoints, which not only attaches importance to the usefulness of decision-making, but also does not despise the fiduciary responsibility.
(B) the impact of the accounting environment
1. Political and legal factors Under different political systems, the government has different requirements and emphases on the allocation and management of economic resources. Under the planned economy system, the state owns all fixed funds, land and other economic resources, and has little or no private ownership of enterprise property. For example, enterprises have no land ownership, and there is no need to evaluate, confirm and measure the land use right under the single public ownership economy. Only in the case of reform and opening-up, introduction of foreign capital and joint venture, will the land use right be recognized and measured as an important "intangible asset".
The influence of political and legal factors should be realized through the policies implemented by the government, the laws and regulations formulated and the legal provisions promulgated. The adoption of legislation by the government can directly affect the development of accounting and the choice of measurement methods. This includes accounting law, company law, securities law and tax law.
2. Economic factors. The influence of economic factors on the choice of accounting measurement mode is mainly manifested in two aspects: economic interests and economic environment.
(1) Economic benefits. Because accounting measurement directly affects accounting information, accounting information represents a certain economic interest relationship. Therefore, for their own economic interests, all stakeholders will inevitably directly or indirectly influence or even interfere in the formulation process of accounting standards in various ways, thus affecting the choice of accounting models and methods.
(2) Economic environment. The influence of economic environment on accounting measurement mode is manifested in many aspects. For example, in an economic environment with stable prices, historical cost is usually required for measurement, and the reliability of accounting data is very high. However, when the price changes continuously and fluctuates greatly, especially in the period of hyperinflation, the measurement attribute that can reflect the price change should be adopted. Another example is that in the case of stable economic environment and low competitive pressure, the requirements for the principle of conservatism are not high; On the contrary, when the economic development fluctuates greatly and the uncertainty and risk are strong, the principle of conservatism is needed in practice. With the continuous emergence and innovation of financial instruments and the increasing financial assets and liabilities of enterprises, the defects of historical cost measurement attributes are becoming more and more obvious, so it is imperative to adopt new measurement attributes, current market prices and fair value.
3. Scientific and technological factors. Modern science and technology have promoted the development of accounting measurement methods. The popularity of the Internet makes the exchange of information faster, and the measurement of fair value no longer stays in the theoretical research stage, especially in technology. In addition, with the help of advanced teaching and operation tools, more accurate calculation methods can be used to measure the amortization amount of fixed assets depreciation or debt discount (overflow) price, which can greatly improve the relevance and reliability of financial information.
4. Cultural and educational factors. The choice of accounting model is closely related to the differences in culture and education. For example, the United States advocates individualism, has a small social power distance, is weak in reflecting uncertain factors, and is easy to accept different factors. Moreover, the United States is a masculine society, and people pay attention to achievement, determination and material success, so its accounting recognition and measurement methods are more selective, emphasizing true reflection and optimism. Therefore, the United States emphasizes the fairness of measurement and emphasizes that "substance is more important than form". On the contrary, Germany's cultural characteristics are collectivism, strong reaction to uncertain factors, long social power distance and feminization of society. Therefore, Germany emphasizes the principle of conservatism, the methods of confirmation and measurement tend to be conservative, and strictly abides by the principle of historical cost. For example, asset revaluation is generally not allowed, and "long-term contract income" strictly limits the percentage of completion method.
5. Quality of accounting personnel. The difficulty of various measurement modes is different, and the selected measurement mode must be acceptable and feasible for the majority of accountants. If the development level of accounting system is different and the quality of accounting personnel is low, it is impossible to require the use of complex measurement methods and models in the actual shortage.
Third, the accounting measurement model and innovation in the era of knowledge economy
(A) the accounting measurement model in the era of knowledge economy
In the era of knowledge economy, intangible assets will replace tangible assets and occupy a dominant position. The measurement model based on fair value and historical cost is facing an impact. Because fair value measurement is based on subjective estimation and lacks reliability, historical cost measurement has the advantages of verifiability, neutrality and reliability. In order to meet the information needs of different users, it will become a major trend of accounting development to provide information based on historical cost and fair value at the same time in the era of knowledge economy.
The accounting measurement mode will be changed to the measurement mode based on fair value. In the past, the criticism of historical cost accounting measurement mainly came from the challenge of inflation. With the development of knowledge economy, historical cost measurement can't reflect the value of core knowledge resources even if the price remains unchanged. If the possible inflation is related to the characteristics of derivative assets, the ideal measurement basis of various assets in the era of knowledge economy is "fair value". Fair value is reflected in the current market price and current value. Fair value can fully reflect all kinds of resources owned or controlled, which is more reliable than historical cost measurement.
In the era of knowledge economy, accounting measurement mode is a kind of accounting measurement mode after the revolution of knowledge economy, especially after knowledge resources become the core resources of enterprises and information technology with computer, multimedia technology and network technology as its main features is highly developed. It will be characterized by historical cost, coexistence of multiple measurement attributes and multiple accounting.
(B) the innovation of accounting measurement mode in the era of knowledge economy
The innovation of accounting measurement mode is not only the objective need of social and economic development, but also the opportunity of accounting development, which will certainly bring a strong impact on traditional accounting and bring accounting into a brand-new world. At present, the accounting measurement of knowledge economy is only in the research and exploration stage. Obviously, there are shortcomings and limitations in theory and implementation, which need to be continuously improved and perfected.
1. Establish the output value. Output value is based on the inflow of economic benefits that the resources used may generate in the future. Its theoretical basis is that "the value of assets is the present value of future cash inflows." Mainly applicable to the measurement of human resources, intangible assets and other values. Enterprises pay attention to the output value of an asset, aiming at realizing the optimal allocation of resources, that is, the maximum output value in the future utility period. Contrary to the input value, the output value pays more attention to the "future output" of assets, which makes up for the lack of historical measurement in time.
2. A variety of measurement attributes coexist and choose the best. In the knowledge economy environment, accounting measurement is the simultaneous use of multiple measurement attributes. In the era of knowledge economy, historical cost shows its inherent limitations, but this does not mean that historical cost will withdraw from the historical stage. The objectivity and verifiability of historical cost measurement attributes and the ability to reflect the performance of asset management responsibilities are incomparable with other measurement attributes, which have advantages and disadvantages. The choice of accounting measurement attributes should adopt multiple measurement attributes at the same time, make full use of strengths and avoid weaknesses, so that the accounting information provided not only attaches importance to the relevance of information, but also emphasizes reliability to meet the different needs of accounting information users.
3. Reasonable measurement of intangible assets of enterprises. In the era of knowledge economy, the accounting measurement of intangible assets of enterprises should be innovated in the following aspects: (1) expanding the recognition and measurement scope of intangible assets. In the era of knowledge economy, some new intangible assets should be added, such as human resources assets, market assets, intellectual property assets and organizational management assets. (2) Change the measurement method of the value of self-created intangible assets. In the era of knowledge economy, due to the coexistence of high risks and high returns in the development of new technologies, it is necessary to measure not only the actual expenditure in the development process, but also the later investment, and at the same time, to evaluate and confirm its market value. (3) Increase the proportion of intangible assets investment value. Amend relevant laws and regulations to stipulate that the intangible assets investment in the company's invested capital can exceed 20% of the total investment.
4. Strengthen the research and application of human resource accounting measurement. In the knowledge economy environment, the establishment and application of human resource accounting is inevitable. However, for a long time, people have been worried about the implementation of human resource accounting, thinking that human resource accounting treats people as things, belittles people's personality and violates human rights. However, it has been proved that human resources are a unique and valuable economic resource, which exists in people's bodies, produces economic value through people's efforts and brings economic benefits to enterprises. Therefore, human resource accounting is a concrete manifestation of respecting talents and knowledge. It recognizes people's ultimate ownership of their personal human resources, and quantifies the specific contribution of talents to enterprises and society through monetary means, so that the status of workers can be truly improved and their rights and interests can be truly implemented. The measurement of human resources is a difficult point in human resources accounting. At present, it is generally divided into two aspects: cost and value. Among them, the measurement methods of human resource cost mainly include historical cost method, replacement cost method and opportunity cost method, and the value of human resource mainly adopts future salary or income discount method. The measurement methods used in these two aspects are inevitably flawed; If the cost emphasizes the input of human resources, the measurement results cannot reflect the true value of human resources, while the value emphasizes the contribution of people to the enterprise in the future service period, which is extremely difficult. Like other economic resources, human resources should be measured on the premise of commercialization and marketization. Therefore, it is more reasonable to measure human resources based on the labor market and the current market price of labor force.
5. Establish risk value. The value of risk is based on the balance between risk and return, the source of value is the risk brought by investors' uncertain judgment on the transaction object, and the measurement basis is the fair value of the amount of assets exchange or debt settlement between two parties who are familiar with the situation and willing to trade on the basis of fair trade. In the fierce market competition, due to the uncertainty of future events, people have inherent requirements to eliminate, transfer and disperse risks. Because of the uncertainty of future transactions and the possibility of loss, the corresponding requirement is high income.
6. Fully confirm and measure the losses of enterprises. Considering the economic facts, both explicit and non-explicit losses of enterprises will bring realistic or future economic benefits to enterprises, which should be confirmed and measured in accounting. The measurement of loss should include two parts: (1) the difference between the realizable value before asset loss and the net book value; (2) Expected income loss.
References:
[1] Liu Lei. Knowledge economy--the third economic revolution. China dida publishing house.
[2] Tang Yun is equal. Accounting theory. Shanghai University of Finance and Economics Press.
[3] Song Xiaoming. Inevitability of replacing historical cost accounting with present value accounting. Accounting newsletter, 1999(2).
[4] On taxation. Analysis of traditional measurement mode. Sichuan Accounting, 2000(4).
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