Qin and Han Dynasties (Western Han Dynasty, New Dynasty, Eastern Han Dynasty) (22 1-220 BC): The feudal economy continued to develop and several powerful political situations appeared, which was the initial development period of China feudal society. Politics: This stage is the establishment and consolidation of centralization in China feudal society. After the Qin dynasty destroyed the six countries, in order to consolidate the unity, the imperial system and the metric system were established in the central government, and the county system was established in the local area. In terms of ideology and culture, centralization was initially established by such tough means as "burning books to bury Confucianism". In the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, the parallel system of counties and countries was implemented, and the power of the kingdom gradually increased, threatening the central government. Its essence is the threat of the remnants of feudal enfeoffment system in slave society to the feudal superstructure. Since Emperor Jingdi began to "cut down the vassals" and put down the "Seven Kingdoms Rebellion", the power of the kingdom was initially weakened. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty carried out the "decree of granting favors", which fundamentally relieved the threat of the kingdom to the central government and was the most crucial step to solve the problem of the kingdom of the Western Han Dynasty. Then he took away a lot of prince titles, and the kingdom problem was fundamentally solved. In order to strengthen political unity with ideological unity, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty "ousted hundreds of schools and respected Confucianism alone" and established Confucianism as the ruling theory of society. During the Eastern Han Dynasty, centralization gradually declined, mainly due to the vicious expansion of powerful landlords, which was a prominent feature of Eastern Han politics. A powerful landlord refers to a big landlord who enjoys political privileges, occupies a large amount of land economically and enjoys a special position from generation to generation. A tyrannical landlord has strong economic strength, political control over the central or local government, and private armed forces, which is a potential threat to centralization. After the yellow turban insurrectionary uprising was suppressed, there was a scuffle between powerful landlords and separatist forces in society. Economy: The feudal economy developed further at this stage. The political unification of Qin and the measures of unifying currency, writing and weights and measures are all conducive to the development and exchange of social economy and culture. Under the influence of the peasant war at the end of Qin dynasty, the rulers of Han dynasty learned the lesson of the previous generation's demise and adjusted their ruling policies. For example, in the early Western Han Dynasty, they adopted a policy of recuperation against the tyranny of the Qin Dynasty. In the early years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, in view of the serious problem of handmaiden from the end of the Western Han Dynasty to the New Dynasty, Emperor Guangwu of the Han Dynasty paid attention to rectifying the official administration and issued the Nine Orders to release handmaiden and prohibit their cruelty, thus forming a situation of "martial revival". After several generations of governance and hard work of the working people, the economy has been restored and developed, and the society is stable and prosperous. Ethnic relations: The Qin and Han Dynasties were the initial prosperous period of ethnic relations in China feudal society. In the north, the relationship between Han regime and Xiongnu is complicated. In the late Warring States period, Xiongnu threatened the Central Plains, forcing northern countries to build the Great Wall to defend themselves. Qin dynasty attacked Xiongnu in the north, built the Great Wall, and moved inland to enrich the border defense. After the "Deng Bai Trap" in the early years of the Western Han Dynasty, the policy of "pro-marriage" was adopted for the Xiongnu, but it could not prevent the invasion of the northern territory. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the society was prosperous and the national strength was strong. He defeated the Xiongnu three times and basically relieved the threat from the north. In the early years of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the Xiongnu split into two parts, and the northern Xiongnu constantly harassed the northern border counties. The government of the Eastern Han Dynasty defeated the Northern Xiongnu twice, which relieved its threat to the Western Regions and the Eastern Han Dynasty. During the Han dynasty, close trade relations and cultural exchanges began with all ethnic groups in the western regions. Zhang Qian and Ban Chao successively sent missions to the Western Regions, which communicated the exchanges between the ethnic minorities and the Han nationality in the Western Regions, strengthened the ties between the Western Regions and the mainland, promoted the economic and cultural exchanges between ethnic groups and the development of the Western Regions, and enriched the lives of the Han nationality and people of all ethnic groups in the Western Regions. The territory of the Han Dynasty also expanded. The Qin and Han dynasties were also the stage of the initial development and jurisdiction of the southern minority areas in ancient China. Qin Zheng conquered the state of Yue in the Pearl River valley, set up three counties in the local area, moved people from the Central Plains to defend there, and dug a lingqu to connect the Yangtze River valley with the Pearl River valley. Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty established counties in Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan and other places in the southwest, which strengthened the ties between the southwest ethnic minorities and the people of all ethnic groups in the mainland. Foreign Relations: At this stage, China's contacts with North Korea, Japan, West Asia and Europe began to develop in the form of trade, diplomatic envoys and scientific and cultural exchanges. After the opening of the Silk Road, China began to communicate with Daqin in West Asia and Europe. Exchanges with neighboring countries in the East, North Korea and Japan, have become more frequent, and the culture of the Chinese nation has begun to exert an all-round influence on these eastern countries. Culture: During the Qin and Han Dynasties, the country was unified, the economy was developed, the ties between various ethnic groups were strengthened, economic and political exchanges between China and foreign countries were frequent, and science, technology and culture were greatly developed. The invention of papermaking and the achievements in mathematics, astronomy and medicine laid the foundation for China's long-term leading position in ancient science, technology and culture.

(3) The Three Kingdoms, the Jin Dynasty, the Southern and Northern Dynasties (220-589): This stage is characterized by the division of feudal countries and the trend of great ethnic integration in the north. The great economic development in the south of the Yangtze River began to change the pattern of China's agricultural economy centered on the northern Yellow River basin. Politics: This stage is the troubled times of ancient China. Since the Qin and Han Dynasties, the feudal unification has been broken, and although there was a brief unification in the Western Jin Dynasty, division was the main feature of politics in this period. This is the product of the decentralized feudal landlord economy since the Eastern Han Dynasty. During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the upper class of powerful landlords developed into gentry. During the Eastern Jin and Southern Dynasties, the system of the gentry was fully developed, and the gentry controlled a large amount of land and population and monopolized official career. Their decadent rule was the political basis that hindered the unification of the sixteen countries in the Eastern Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. However, the obvious economic differences between the North and the South over a long period of time also make the political unification between the North and the South lack the necessary economic conditions. The obvious ethnic differences between Han nationality and ethnic minorities and within ethnic minorities also hinder national unity. Economy: The most important economic phenomenon at this stage is the economic development in the south of the Yangtze River, which made the ancient social and economic center of China move southward. Before the Southern Dynasties, the economic center of China was located in the Yellow River Basin. It is precisely because of the political and economic importance of this region that it has become the object of contention by rulers of past dynasties. Therefore, large-scale wars are prone to occur, and the originally highly developed feudal civilization in the Yellow River Basin is constantly being destroyed. Especially in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, large-scale wars in the north continued, and the economy and culture suffered devastating blows. Chang 'an and Luoyang, two ancient capitals, have been looted many times, the high civilization in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River has been destroyed many times, and people's lives have been displaced, resulting in the tragic situation that "white bones are exposed in the wild, and chickens crow for thousands of miles". At this time, the Yangtze river basin with low productivity level has obtained some convenient conditions for economic development. At this time, there are fewer wars in the south and the society is relatively stable, which is conducive to economic development; From the end of the Western Jin Dynasty, a large number of northern farmers moved south, which increased the labor force for the south and brought advanced production tools and technologies. The industriousness of southern minorities and Han people is also an important factor in the economic development of Jiangnan; Some rulers in the south, such as Emperor Wu of Song, also paid more attention to taking measures to develop production. Therefore, during the Southern Dynasties, the economic development level of Jiangnan began to catch up with that of the North, which provided the necessary economic premise for the country to realize political reunification. Ethnic relations: At this stage, the Han nationality and ethnic minorities have been greatly integrated. There are obvious differences between Han nationality and ethnic minorities in economy and culture. Because the rulers of the Eastern Han Dynasty and the Western Jin Dynasty carried out the policy of ethnic discrimination and oppression against the ethnic minorities who moved in, sharp ethnic contradictions were triggered, and the situation of great ethnic division in sixteen countries in the Eastern Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties was formed. However, after the Northern Wei Dynasty unified the Yellow River Basin, great ethnic integration appeared in the north, which became an indispensable condition for national reunification. Ethnic integration refers to the natural integration between ethnic groups, which is the result of the close relationship between the economy, culture and living habits of all ethnic groups. This is a progressive phenomenon in the history of China, which has played an important role in the formation and development of the Chinese nation and in the unification of multi-ethnic feudal countries. Because the economic and cultural level of the Han nationality in the ancient history of China was obviously higher than that of other ethnic minorities, all previous ethnic integration took place with the Han nationality as the core. From an economic point of view, ethnic integration is a process in which ethnic minorities change from nomadic economy to farming economy; From the perspective of cultural customs, ethnic integration is the process of sinicization of ethnic minorities; From the perspective of the whole social development, ethnic integration is the process of feudalization of ethnic minorities. Ethnic integration is mainly realized through the following forms: 1. Ethnic migration refers to the large-scale inward migration of surrounding ethnic minorities since the Eastern Han Dynasty. This is not only an important way of national integration, but also a prerequisite for national integration. Second, friendly exchange means that all ethnic groups in the north gradually change their nomadic life, learn advanced agricultural production techniques of the Han nationality and become agricultural residents; The Han nationality also learned the brothers' animal husbandry economy. Third, joint struggle, that is, in the struggle against exploitation and oppression by rulers of all ethnic groups, people of all ethnic groups strengthen ties and enhance friendship. Fourth, the reforms carried out by some minority rulers have also played a role in accelerating national integration. 5. War between ethnic groups also contributes to national integration objectively. The reform of Emperor Xiaowen of the Northern Wei Dynasty was carried out under the background of the integration of northern nationalities, in order to consolidate the rule, develop the economy and increase the national strength. One of the most important measures is the equal land system, which gradually restores and develops the northern economy, is conducive to the transformation of ethnic minorities from nomadic life to agricultural life, and has a strong role in promoting national integration. Other measures, such as moving the capital to Luoyang and accepting the advanced culture of the Han nationality, accelerated national integration. Emperor Xiaowen was an outstanding minority politician and reformer in ancient China. Culture: Although the current political situation is chaotic, China has made brilliant achievements in science, technology and culture, surpassing Qin and Han Dynasties, and many fields continue to be in the forefront of the world, such as mathematics and agronomy, and its achievements are not inferior to those of later generations, which laid the foundation for the prosperity of feudal culture in China during the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

⑷ Sui and Tang Dynasties (58 1-907): This period was the prosperous stage of feudal society in China. China is at the forefront of world development and is the most advanced, prosperous and powerful country. Politics: The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the perfect period of centralization in China feudal society. The Sui Dynasty initiated the system of three provinces and six departments and the imperial examination system, and the Tang Dynasty further improved the system of three provinces and six departments. Clear division of labor, easy to improve administrative efficiency. The position of the top officials in the three provinces is equivalent to that of prime ministers, which is convenient for brainstorming and mutual restraint, avoiding the threat of excessive power to the monarch, thus better solving a pair of inherent contradictions in China feudal society-the contradiction of monarchical power, thus strengthening centralization. The imperial examination system enabled talented people from humble origins to participate in the political power, and the rulers could further win over scholars, which expanded the class foundation of feudal rule and also had an impact on the decadent aristocratic system since the Wei, Jin and Southern Dynasties. The perfection of these two systems ensured the stability of feudal politics and created conditions for economic development. However, another pair of inherent contradictions in feudal society-the contradiction between the central and local governments-has not been properly solved at this stage. Because Xuanzong of the Tang Dynasty set up a buffer region on the border, the local power expanded, which posed a serious threat to centralization, so the Anshi Rebellion broke out and the Tang Dynasty turned from prosperity to decline. However, after the Anshi Rebellion, the local separatist regime accelerated the decline of the Tang Dynasty and directly led to its demise. Economically, the Sui and Tang Dynasties followed the system of equal land distribution since the Northern Wei Dynasty, and the rulers of the Tang Dynasty even developed the tenancy system into a rent-and-rent tune. The biggest feature of this system lies in the setting of harmony, that is, silk or cloth can be used as corvee. The land equalization system enables farmers to obtain certain land, and the rent adjustment system ensures farmers' labor time. These two systems became an important guarantee for the economic prosperity of the Tang Dynasty. However, with the development of feudal economy, land annexation intensified, and a large number of state-owned land was privatized, which made the land available to the government less and less, the land equalization system was destroyed, and the rent adjustment system could not be maintained, thus affecting the national fiscal revenue. In order to solve the financial difficulties. In 780, the Tang government implemented two tax laws. It has changed the past collection standard based on manpower and is a major change in China's tax system. However, it did not restrict land annexation, so the class contradictions in the late Tang Dynasty were constantly sharp, which led to the peasant war. Ethnic relations: The Sui and Tang Dynasties was an important development stage of China's unified multi-ethnic country, and ethnic relations were unprecedentedly prosperous, especially in the early Tang Dynasty, because it was a prosperous period of feudal society in China, with advanced political system, developed economy, and prosperous science, technology and culture. This provided a good foundation for the Han regime to develop ethnic relations, and at the same time, it also attracted all ethnic groups in the border areas, making them urgently demand to absorb the advanced culture of the Tang Dynasty and take the initiative to develop relations with the Tang government. For example, Songzan Gambu proposed to the Tang government. The national policy of the central government in the Tang Dynasty was also more cheerful, and it actively adopted various ways, such as direct jurisdiction, conferring titles and equal exchanges, to actively develop relations with neighboring nationalities. Foreign relations: the Tang Dynasty was powerful and attractive to the outside world; Land and sea transportation is also relatively developed; The government also pursues an open foreign policy, which provides convenient conditions for the development of foreign relations. At this time, the Tang Dynasty had very close contacts with North Korea, Japan and other East Asian countries, and its influence on these countries and regions was not only reflected in the political and economic system, but also in urban architecture, writing, daily life customs and so on. The impact on countries in West Asia and South Asia is mainly reflected in the economic and cultural aspects. It should be pointed out that the influence of Tang culture on foreign countries is far-reaching, but the influence of foreign culture on Tang culture is extremely obvious. Tang Wenhua is extensive and profound, which is based on absorbing the essence of foreign culture. The economies and cultures of all countries, regions and ethnic groups are mutually influential and complementary, and the status of all countries and ethnic groups is equal. Culture: During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, China made new and greater achievements in science and technology, literature and art. The reasons for the prosperity and development of culture included political stability and national unity, which created a good environment for the development of culture. Developed economy and comprehensive prosperity of agriculture, handicrafts and commerce have laid a material foundation for cultural prosperity; The Tang government pursued the policy of opening to the outside world, and had frequent economic and cultural exchanges with North Korea, Japan, India and West Asian countries, which enriched the cultural connotation of the country. The culture of this period has the following characteristics: overall prosperity, that is, outstanding achievements in literature, art, science and technology, religion and so on. , and inclusiveness, that is, extensive absorption of foreign excellent culture; World-leading, that is, leading achievements in many fields, such as Zhao Zhouqiao, sculpture, printing and so on. It has far-reaching influence and is the source of "Chinese cultural circle".

5. Five Dynasties, Ten Kingdoms, Liao, Song, Xia, Jin and Yuan Dynasties (907- 1368): This period is characterized by the gradual unification from the division of several ethnic regimes, and the further strengthening of ethnic integration. Economically, the center of gravity moved south, the feudal mode of production gradually expanded to the frontier, and the feudal economy continued to develop. Politics: The political situation at this stage experienced the process of re-division of feudal countries-partial reunification-coexistence of state power-national reunification. The division of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms was the continuation and expansion of the separatist forces in the late Tang Dynasty and ended in the Northern Song Dynasty. However, there are still developing regimes such as Liao and Dali on the national map, and later Xixia and Jin appeared one after another. Therefore, the Northern Song Dynasty was only a partially unified dynasty, which was different from the unified Han and Tang Dynasties. After the demise of the Northern Song Dynasty, the confrontation between the Southern Song Dynasty and Jin appeared again. Until 1279, the Yuan regime reunited the whole country with its powerful force. This stage is the strengthening stage of centralization in China feudal society. Mainly reflected in a series of measures taken by the Northern Song Dynasty and the Yuan Dynasty to strengthen centralization. After the establishment of the Northern Song Dynasty, in order to consolidate the rule, Song Taizu lifted the military power of the central and local generals, separated the local administrative power from the financial power, and established a powerful imperial army in the central government. These measures avoided the reappearance of local division, made the Northern Song Dynasty politically stable, and were beneficial to the economic and cultural development. However, it also led to the expansion of bureaucracy and the surge in the number of troops, resulting in the long-term poverty and weakness of the Northern Song Dynasty regime. By the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty, there was a serious financial, political and frontier crisis. In order to ease contradictions, rich countries Qiang Bing and Song Shenzong appointed Wang Anshi to reform. He formulated measures such as young crops law, service law, irrigation and water conservancy law, land tax law and Jiabao law, trying to limit the exploitation of farmers by bureaucratic landlords, ease land annexation, ease class contradictions and increase government revenue. However, due to improper employment, especially the new law harmed the interests of bureaucratic landlords, weakened the ruling foundation of the Northern Song Dynasty regime and was opposed by the privileged class, so the new law failed. After the Yuan Dynasty unified the whole country, in order to effectively govern the vast territory and implement the provincial system, the provincial scale of later generations was initially established, and the central government's jurisdiction over the vast border areas, including Tibet and Taiwan, was effectively guaranteed through Zheng Xuan Academy and Penghu Inspection Department, further strengthening centralization. Economy: At this stage, on the basis of the prosperity of agriculture and handicrafts, the commodity economy has achieved remarkable development. The scope of commercial activities gradually expanded, breaking the boundary between "city" and "square" in Tang Dynasty. There are many kinds of money, especially the world's earliest paper money-"Jiaozi" appeared in Sichuan in the Northern Song Dynasty, and the "monopoly market" trade also rose at the border of state power. At this stage, the southern economy is developing continuously. During the Southern Song Dynasty, there was a proverb in Taihu Lake Basin that "Su Lake is ripe, and the world is sufficient", indicating that the agricultural production in the south of the Yangtze River has surpassed that in the north, completely replacing the position of the northern economic center. In the Yuan Dynasty, in order to solve the problem of "transporting grain from the south to the north", grain transportation was also vigorously set up, which opened up an unprecedented sea transportation, which was enough to illustrate the important position of the southern economy. At this stage, the structure of China's ancient textile industry began to change. During the Southern Song Dynasty, cotton planting was popularized and the technical level of cotton textile was improved. In the Yuan Dynasty, the cotton planting area was further expanded, and the cotton textile industry gradually replaced the silk textile industry as the focus of the textile industry. Ethnic relations: at this stage, ethnic regimes coexist for a long time and wars continue. Although these wars have brought disasters to the people, they have objectively promoted exchanges between ethnic groups. This was manifested in the post-war peace negotiations. For example, the "Yuanmeng" concluded between the Northern Song Dynasty and the Liao Dynasty is conducive to meeting the needs of people of all ethnic groups in production and life, enhancing the friendship of people of all ethnic groups, strengthening economic and cultural exchanges between border areas and the Central Plains, and promoting the development of border areas. Therefore, peace is still the mainstream of ethnic relations at this stage. Especially after the reunification of the Yuan Dynasty, the phenomenon of great ethnic integration reappeared, with new features such as the migration of Han nationality and the formation of new ethnic groups. Foreign relations: At this stage, the focus of China's ancient foreign relations changed obviously. Because the Han regime is relatively weak, the control area is limited, the inland foreign trade is blocked, and the "Silk Road" is no longer smooth. During the Southern Song Dynasty, due to the strong support of the government, the progress of shipbuilding technology and economic prosperity, sea routes became the focus of foreign exchanges and trade. During the Yuan Dynasty, land transportation and maritime trade were very developed, and foreign exchanges flourished again. Culture: The culture of Song and Yuan Dynasties is highly prosperous and continues to lead the world, with outstanding achievements in astronomy, calendar, history, literature and art, etc. It is particularly worth mentioning that the three inventions of movable type printing, gunpowder and compass were all spread abroad at this stage and made great contributions to the progress of human civilization.

[6] Ming and Qing Dynasties (1840 before the Opium War) (1368- 1840): At this stage, the unified multi-ethnic feudal country was further consolidated and the feudal system gradually declined. Politics: The Ming and Qing Dynasties witnessed unprecedented strengthening of centralization in feudal society in China, which was characterized by the strengthening of absolute monarchy. The rulers of the Ming dynasty abolished the prime minister in the central government, abolished the provincial system in local governments and established three divisions; The rulers of the Qing Dynasty set up military headquarters in the central government, and the adjustment of central or local administrative agencies strengthened the power of the monarch. The rulers of Ming and Qing dynasties took some "extraordinary" measures to safeguard their own rule and strengthen the authority of the monarch. For example, the Ming Dynasty set up a special factory health institution to closely monitor the officials and the people, and took stereotyped writing as the form of imperial examination to cultivate the emperor's loyal slaves; The rulers of the Qing dynasty carried out the "literary inquisition", which caused a bad situation of "thousands of troops and horses in harmony" The introduction of these measures is precisely the political manifestation of the decline of the feudal system. It should also be pointed out that in the peasant war at the end of the Ming Dynasty, the Li Zicheng Rebel Army clearly put forward the slogan of "even land and free grain", aiming at the land ownership of feudal landlords and touching the fundamental problems of feudal society. This also reflects that feudal rule has become increasingly unstable. Economy: At this stage, the development level of feudal economy reached an unprecedented height. In the early Ming and Qing dynasties, rulers paid more attention to restoring and developing production, so they adjusted their ruling measures to ease contradictions and stabilize small farmers. For example, Ming Taizu rewards reclamation and reduces taxes; In the Qing Dynasty, Yong Zhengdi implemented "land to the tiller" and abolished the poll tax that had been implemented for a long time in feudal society, which made the feudal state begin to relax the personal control of farmers, thus reducing the burden of landless farmers and stabilizing their production and life. During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, agriculture, handicrafts and commerce all reached prosperity. On the basis of the unprecedented development of commodity economy, the capitalist employment and exploitation relationship began to sprout in the silk industry and other departments in the south of the Yangtze River from the end of Ming Dynasty. There was a slow development in the early Qing Dynasty, but it was seriously hindered by the decadent feudal system. However, the emergence of new relations of production can, after all, reflect the economic decline of the feudal system. Ethnic relations: this stage is an important consolidation period for multi-ethnic feudal countries. Especially in the early Qing dynasty, the separatist activities in Junggar and the rebellion of harmony, greatness, smallness and smallness were put down successively, and the jurisdiction over the northwest frontier region was strengthened. Emperor Qianlong also carefully arranged the returned Turkic Hutt Department, making it contribute to the frontier development. The Qing government also strictly controlled Tibet by conferring the title of religious leader in Tibet and sending ministers to Tibet. These measures effectively strengthened the Qing government's control over the border areas and expanded its territory. Foreign relations: At this stage, the foreign policy of China feudal dynasty changed obviously. Since Zheng He's voyage to the West in the Ming Dynasty, the rulers began to pursue the policy of closing the country to the outside world, and the rulers in the early Qing Dynasty followed suit. This policy has seriously hindered the exchange between China and foreign countries and the development of capitalist relations of production in China, leaving China ignorant of the world development trend, which is an important reason why China lags behind the world trend. At the same time, at this stage, China began to be harassed by early western colonial activities, such as the Portuguese occupation of Macau and the Dutch occupation of Taiwan Province Province. This also reflects the decline of the feudal system. Culture: Due to the development of commodity economy and the decline of feudal system, the culture of Ming and Qing Dynasties showed new characteristics different from life. In the ideological field, scholars with anti-feudal democratic thoughts, such as Huang Zongxi, Gu and Wang Fuzhi, appeared. In the field of science and technology, although China still leads the world in traditional science and technology, and has published several concluding works, it obviously lags behind the west in modern natural science and humanities. In the field of literature and art, novels and dramas such as A Dream of Red Mansions and Peony Pavilion began to appear, which impacted feudal ethics and reflected the decline of feudal system.