11.7 09: 551At the beginning of the 4th century, with the gradual formation and development of the capitalist mode of production, people's demand for science and art became increasingly urgent and intense. Europe began to enter the Renaissance. Renaissance is the second peak in the history of European culture after the prosperity of ancient Greek and Roman culture. This period lasted more than 300 years from14th century to the first half of17th century. Renaissance took the restoration of Greek and Roman classical literature and scholarship as its face, which completely shook the ruling foundation of European Christian churches and led to the emergence and development of modern natural science.

I. Revival of ancient Greek and Roman cultures

From the fifth century to the fifteenth century, it was called the "dark Middle Ages". This is an era in which the Christian church dominated, the classical culture of ancient Greece and Rome declined, and Europe entered an era in which theology ruled everything. The medieval Christian theological worldview believed that people were born guilty. According to the theory of "original sin", Adam and Eve, the ancestors of mankind, lived in heaven and lived a beautiful and happy life. However, they were punished by God for stealing the forbidden fruit, and were expelled from heaven and fell into the eternal world. Therefore, everyone is guilty in this life. People can only turn to the church, repent and pray for God's grace, save themselves from sin, and then go to heaven after death. God rules everything and human beings are worthless. Man is the slave and lamb of God and can only obey God. At that time, science was regarded as an insult to God, all knowledge was "owned" by priests, and all wisdom was "condensed" in the Bible. In this era, as Engels pointed out: "Science is only the obedient handmaid of the church, and it must never go beyond the boundaries stipulated by religious beliefs." The church used its privilege to suppress all "heresy". According to statistics, about 5 million people were sentenced to death in medieval European countries, many of whom were natural scientists. Therefore, the development of science in this period was extremely slow, and in some areas, compared with ancient science, it even regressed.

"In Italy, capitalist production developed earliest, and serfdom relationship collapsed earliest." (Marx's Das Kapital, Volume I) So the Renaissance first started in Italy. Florence, the cradle of the Renaissance, has been the center of the bourgeois new culture movement since the 4th century. During Cosimo's reign of medici family (1434- 1464) and later Rosso's reign (1469- 1492), Florence experienced unprecedented economic and cultural prosperity and became a beacon of "dark" medieval Europe. At that time, the new culture movement in Italy and Florence, under the banner of "reviving" the ancient Greek and Roman culture, directly pointed the finger at the theocracy of the church. The bourgeoisie, which has just stepped onto the historical stage, does not have a mature and complete ideological system, but it must have a powerful ideological weapon to counter the Christian theological forces in the Middle Ages. They believe that this weapon is the secular and rational ancient Greek and Roman culture. Although these classical cultures were rejected by Christian churches, denounced as heresies and imprisoned for thousands of years in the Middle Ages, the emerging bourgeois thinkers made them glow again.

In the cultural circle of Florence, Italy, "humanism" has also become a weapon to challenge theology. Humanists moved out of the famous saying of the ancient Greek philosopher protagoras: "Man is the measure of all things", advocating respect for nature and human rights and opposing asceticism; Advocate scientific culture and oppose superstition. They pull people back from the world of God to the real world of people. They praise people, life and nature, and advocate science and rationality. Under the guidance of humanism, social science and natural science have developed, resulting in modern realistic literature and art, modern natural science based on experimental methods, new materialist philosophy, political science, history and pedagogy, and a large number of versatile and knowledgeable giants. These giants held high the banner of humanism and launched a fierce attack on feudal absolutism and Christian theological rule, thus writing a new chapter in the history of human culture.

Second, the liberation of natural science.

Renaissance is an era of active thinking and conducive to bold innovation. The geographical discoveries of Columbus, Magellan and Da Gama; The artistic innovations of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael were all completed in this era. After the dark night in the Middle Ages, science suddenly rose again with unexpected power and developed at a magical speed. Among them, Copernicus, Bruno, Galileo, Kepler and Newton are the representatives and pioneers of astronomical discoveries.

In the Copernican era, Ptolemy's geocentric theory was dominant in Europe. In the middle ages, the church deified the geocentric theory and used it as the basis to prove the existence of God. Copernicus believed that Ptolemy regarded illusion as reality because there was no difference between phenomenon and essence. Because we can't feel the rotation of the earth, we only feel that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west every day, just like when people are driving on a big ship, they often don't feel the ship moving, only things on the shore are retreating. Then, Copernicus put forward Heliocentrism and published his magnum opus On the Operation of Celestial Bodies. He bravely put forward that the sun is the center of the universe and the earth is not the center of the universe. It is just an ordinary planet orbiting the sun. Because Copernicus was limited by the times and class, he could not completely get rid of the influence of the old traditional ideas. He followed the ancient Greek idealist school's view that the circle is the most perfect shape, and that the orbit of the planet around the sun is circular and moves at a constant speed. But it turns out that the orbits of planets around the sun are elliptical and unequal. Bruno and Kepler developed and perfected these imperfections of Copernicus' theory. The birth of Copernicus' "Heliocentrism" liberated astronomy from the bondage of religious theology, and natural science was reborn, which is of epoch-making significance in the history of modern scientific development.

Third, the challenge of natural science to theology.

For thousands of years, theological ignorance has been rampant. They raised the power of God, belittled mankind, stifled scientific discovery and made science a slave to theology. The proposal of Copernicus theory is an open challenge to theology and directly points the finger at the Roman church. Copernicus' theory overthrew the basic theory of astronomy at that time and distinguished science from mysterious witchcraft. It violated Christian doctrine and was opposed by the church. The Pope condemned Copernicus' theory as "wrong and totally inconsistent with the heresy of the Bible", banned his works, and brutally persecuted scholars who publicized Copernicus' theory.

Bruno, a natural scientist who shouted for the truth, ignored the ban of the church and boldly exposed religious ignorance. He organically combined the advanced natural science and philosophy at that time and established his own materialistic natural philosophy world outlook. He insisted on supplementing and developing Copernicus' theory. Copernicus reduced the earth from the central celestial body in the universe to a planet in the solar system, thus shaking the foundation of Catholic theological rule. Bruno reduced the sun from the central celestial body of the universe to an ordinary star, which advanced people's scientific understanding of the universe. This is a more thorough denial of the "geocentric theory" advocated by the church and the resulting "anthropocentrism". Bruno's opinion made hundreds of inquisitions declare him a heresy, and the Roman inquisition tried every means to kill him. To this end, they used despicable means to lure him back to China and imprisoned him in the dungeons of Venice and Rome for eight years, in an attempt to force him to bow his head and repent, give up his views, confess to the church, condemn himself and kneel down. However, during his eight years in prison, Bruno was tortured, but he never wavered in his belief, never gave up his theory, and never admitted his "mistakes". 1600 February 17, Bruno was burned to death at the stake in the Rome Flower Square. Bruno enthusiastically propagated materialism and atheism everywhere, spread Copernicus' theory to the whole of Europe, and made him the staunchest and bravest fighter against the church and scholasticism.

At the same time, Galileo, a scientist, waged an indomitable struggle against the Holy See in order to defend the truth. He observed the sun, moon and stars in the sky with a self-made telescope, uncovered many secrets in celestial bodies, provided favorable evidence for Copernicus' theory, and dealt a fatal blow to the "God's world" that tried to anesthetize people's spirit and will. Pope Paul V (1605- 162 1) seriously felt that although Bruno was physically eliminated by the Holy See, he did not eliminate Copernicus' theory ideologically. Now Galileo is supporting Copernicus' theory with new discoveries, and the Vatican has been hit again. So, 16 16 On March 5, the Pope reiterated that Copernicus' theory was "heresy" and his works were banned. No one is allowed to speak, publicize or read, otherwise they will be tried by the Inquisition. However, the Vatican's warning did not make Galileo give up his astronomical research. After long-term observation and research on the movement of celestial bodies, he was more convinced of the correctness of Copernicus' theory. 1632, Galileo's dialogue about Ptolemy and Copernicus, after long-term review, was finally published. After the book was published, it was greatly hated by some priests. They appealed to the Inquisition on the pretext that the ban of 16 16 was still valid. Soon, the book was banned from sale and Galileo was summoned to the Roman inquisition for trial. At this time, Galileo was nearly 70 years old and weak. Although exhausted by torture, he still argued and insisted on his own point of view, refusing to bow to the Vatican. In the end, Galileo was sentenced to prison and put under house arrest in Florence for seven years.

Kepler, a famous German astronomer, also fought against the church to defend the truth. During his college study, Kepler gradually became an admirer of Copernicus' theory. His belief in theology wavered and he often had heated arguments with his classmates. He clearly defended Copernicus' theory of the universe. In his later years, he still fought against idealism unremittingly. The Catholic Church hated Kepler's behavior, surrounded his residence and threatened to put him to death. Later, Kepler was once an imperial mathematician and survived. But this did not shake his faith. He still insisted on scientific research and made great progress in Copernicus' Heliocentrism.

Fourth, the victory of natural science.

Once human reason gets rid of the shackles of theological worldview, it will have great power. The great discoveries made by astronomers such as Copernicus and Kepler in astronomy are quite different from religious prejudice, which is a complete denial of the theological system. It is also the discovery of these giants that has promoted the development of materialistic world outlook. The power of truth is irresistible, and human understanding will never stop because of the fool of religious thoughts. More than 200 years later, the Pope had to admit that Heliocentrism was right and rehabilitate a group of scientists who died unjustly, such as Bruno and Galileo. This is a victory of truth, a victory of science, and a victory of giants in the Renaissance.

Defendant: CJ quim- Director Grade 8 10-2 18:09.

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Ancient Greece:

The Greek culture created by the Greeks has extraordinary infiltration. It can transcend the limitation of time and space and spread to Apennines, Rhine and Bactria with the sailing fleet and Roman legions. She has infinite vitality, which has been absorbed and transformed by later civilizations from time to time and has become an eternal treasure of mankind.

Ancient Greece is the cradle of western civilization and a symbol of human wisdom. Although she did not form a unified country, they were closely linked by the same language, the same faith and the same history. Their "all-encompassing talents and activities ensure their position in the history of human development, which no other country can match." The ancient Greek nation not only created rich and colorful civilizations, but also dominated in literature, history, science, philosophy and art, and also gave birth to all the embryos of modern western civilization.

Crete:

The birthplace of Greek civilization

Greek civilization originated in Crete, an island that is said to be located in the "center of the world". Here, theseus, the future king of Athens, once broke into the maze and cut off the terrible head of Minoan cattle, becoming a hero worshipped by the Greeks. At the beginning of the 20th century, this maze was miraculously excavated, and news that shocked the world broke out. Now, when people are faced with the ruins of the palace that have been dusty for thousands of years and admire the exquisite murals and meticulous and unique utensils, they can't help but sigh that Crete should be the birthplace of Greek culture.

However, the ruthlessness of history swept away the glory of Crete. Savagery has replaced civilization, savage folk customs, endless fighting, flowing blood and struggling death. This is an era that needs heroes, and there are indeed heroes. Their scorching achievements call for future generations to admire them. So Homer, a blind poet, rekindled the fire of Greek culture and broke through the night. He wrote two epics, Heriat and Odyssey, enthusiastically eulogizing the Almighty God and the warriors of wyndell dichinson, whether it was the sacred Athena and Poseidon, or the mortal Achilles and hector, whether it was the Greeks or Trojans, whether it was the winners or losers, all heroes were respected by this respectable person. Pindar is a rising poet after Homer. He is brilliant and ambitious. He regards poetry as a tool to spread his value. He once solemnly declared to the world: "I will ignite this dear city with burning poems and let it burn." Let my language spread to every corner of the world faster than horses and winged wheels in Mercedes-Benz. " Pindar's poems are magnificent and give people infinite beauty.

Greece's simple archaic era is an era when Greeks continue to export immigrants overseas. Their colonies spread all over western Europe, southern Europe, North Africa, Asia Minor and the Black Sea coast, from Masaria to Byzantium, from Portia to Sinop, just like countless roots protruding from the trunk of Greece, they hungrily sucked the cultural nutrients of the surrounding soil. Egyptian religion, Persian philosophy, Phoenician writing, Babylonian astronomy and "barbarian" art, countless ancient civilizations and thousands of years of cultural achievements all spread rapidly to the rolling hills of the Peloponnesus, to the fruitful orchards in Attica and to the poorer mountainous areas than attiya. Greeks are very lucky. They are the darlings of thousands of people, embraced by many ancient civilizations and enjoying the elegance left by oriental civilization.

Drama:

It has played a role in enriching people's spiritual life.

Greeks love life and enjoy it. "Give full play to people's main abilities within the scope provided by life and make life perfect"-this is the definition of happiness written by ancient Greece. This is a concept full of vitality, which runs through the whole Greek history. Elegant drama has just played a role in enriching people's spiritual life. Sophocles is a master of Greek tragedy. Although his works have been washed and polished in distant years and passed down from generation to generation, they still have beautiful style and excellent skills. The taste of "classical" is like this, washing and practicing, quiet and solemn; Lively and temperate; Solemn and elegant. Its structure is also classical, each line of poetry is interrelated, and gradually evolved to a climax, showing the significance of its theme. Greek literature and art are fruitful, and the achievements of drama are by no means accidental. Perhaps the victory of the Greek-Persian war gave the Greeks the confidence and passion necessary to create a great drama era, or perhaps the trade was developed. Economic prosperity enables them to support chorus and drama competitions that cost thousands of dollars. Besides Sophocles, there are other great playwrights, such as Aeschylus, euripides and aristophanes, who created scenes of joy and sadness with their own pens. Touching people's hearts, the scene has created one vivid and outstanding character image after another. Democratic atmosphere is the source of vitality and richness of Greek drama. Aeschylus can make Prometheus despise arrogance from Olympus without fear of being suppressed by medieval theocracy. Euripides can break through the barriers of the idea that men are superior to women, and let the humiliated Medea speak the heartfelt words that "only women are the most painful" in the world. Wonderful Greek drama will always be a precious legacy of mankind.

History:

The Greeks' Reflection on the Past

The ancient Greeks regarded thinking about the past as the innate instinct of human beings. They don't want to keep their cognition on the surface of the problem, but trace back to the essence of things, so as to achieve perfect rationality. The Greeks had a sense of history for a long time, but they didn't know that Homer played the role of a historian. Although his poems have literary elements, there are also many historical facts. Troy's successful excavation itself proves the authenticity of Homer's records. The magnificent Greek-Persian War, the countless sufferings and severe tests suffered by the Greeks in this war, all left indelible marks on the minds of the Greeks. This stimulated the great historian Herodotus, who vowed to pass on this epic story to future generations and make it immortal. From this, the History of Persian War, regarded as a classic historical work, was born, and Herodotus gained the reputation of "the father of history". Thucydides later pushed Greek historiography to a new peak. He witnessed the Peloponnesian War at the end of the 5th century BC, and it is hard to forget that the brothers among the city-states put on heavy armor, picked up spears and daggers and rushed at each other mercilessly. Compatriots fell in batches, and relatives died one by one; The god of plague is flying all over the sky, and the bones are exposed on the hill. This is simply a Greek disaster and nightmare! The trauma of the war and the ups and downs of the country and individuals deeply impacted Thucydides' mind, prompting him to write a masterpiece "The History of the Peloponnesian War" with his heart, and set up a monument admired by future generations in the history of historiography.

Science:

It provided an opportunity for the vigorous development of Greece.

In order to build pyramids, palaces and temples, and to measure the fertile land left by the flooding of the Nile, the Egyptians studied measurement methods. In order to learn the commandments of God, priests often observed the sky. Compared with them, the Greeks showed more interest in the mysteries of the universe and the laws of everything. Alexander's expedition almost made the Greeks see the "end of the world". Facing the rough Indus River and crossing the inaccessible Caucasus, they can't help feeling their ignorance and ignorance. At the same time, a large number of Hellenistic cities have sprung up at the intersection of Asia, Africa and Europe, and libraries have mushroomed, which undoubtedly provides an opportunity for the vigorous development of science. As we know, Pythagoras discovered the "universal theorem" very early; Euclid summed up the experience of predecessors and founded system geometry. His Principles of Geometry has been circulated for thousands of years and has been a popular teaching material in European universities until now. Archimedes of Syracuse is good at thinking. He realized the existence of buoyancy from the water overflowing from the bath, worked out the mathematical formula of the equilibrium position of the floating body, and founded hydrostatics. He gained strength and confidence from science, and asserted that if he was given a fulcrum, the whole earth would be shaken, which was a fearless spirit and perseverance to challenge nature. This is the value of Greek scientists. Roman soldiers killed Archimedes, who begged him for more time to think. Unexpectedly, he was accused of being unforgivable forever. Greek astronomy benefited from Babylon. As early as before Copernicus, Samoan Aristak doubted "geocentric theory". Bacos made the main astronomical instruments and quadrant at that time, and invented the calibration method to determine the ground position by latitude and longitude, and calculated the lengths of solar year, lunar year and sidereal year, and the values were quite accurate. Romantic Greeks also gave mythical colors to the confusing sky and the constellations they divided. Whenever night falls, we sit in the quiet farmhouse yard and look up at the sky, daydreaming in the flicker of fireflies and starlight, as if we saw Apollo running to the fairy playing the harp in winged flying shoes, flying horses flying over the lion's head, and fierce Orion waving his cane at the wolf star ... except for outstanding astronomy, physics and mathematics,

Wisdom:

Pushing the Greeks to pursue the supreme truth

The Greeks admire wisdom, and the god in charge of wisdom in their minds is the beautiful and magical Athena. Few ancient civilizations have produced so many philosophers and sages as Greece. Flowers bloom and fall, winter goes and summer comes, the moon moves and the stars move, and rivers flow. Greeks are always confused by the uncertainty of the world and are willing to explore eternal truth. Wise men have flashes and endless ideas. Thales of Miletus regarded the water that gave birth to life as the source of everything. Anaximani insists that the air around him is the foundation of the universe, and Heraclitus seems to see the final answer from the dancing flame. He said, "The world was not created by a god or a person. That was a long time ago, now and in the future. " Parmenides and democritus also expressed their views. This situation in which a hundred schools of thought contend benefits from the development of trade. Where there is trade, there is the flow of people, and the elites of all countries will inevitably collide with the sparks of thought. After defeating the Persians, Athens became one of the most developed city-states in the Greek world. A perfect democratic system releases the air of freedom, and magnets generally attract talents from all over the world and give them leisure to think. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and Xenophon all won the crown of the kingdom of wisdom under such conditions. Ugly and disheveled, Socrates wrote nothing, but inspired Plato to forget drama, sports and women and pursue the supreme truth. Plato got a rest garden in the suburbs, and later became the world-famous "Athens College", focusing on teaching mathematics and philosophy. There, students don't have to pay, and women can stop and listen. It is like a melting pot, which brings together the cultural achievements of Greece for hundreds of years and refines them. We always divide Plato's thoughts into logic, metaphysics, ethics, aesthetics and politics, but his theory is not systematic, but mixed in a beautiful and thoughtful dialogue. Plato believes that everything depends on thought, worships the love of truth beyond body and spirit, and longs for a society without degeneration, poverty, tyranny and war. In his ideal country, everyone has the right to receive education, and the wise rule ignorance. Aristotle inherited Plato's career. He is knowledgeable and brilliant, and has left a solid footprint in philosophy, politics, logic, rhetoric, poetics and Neo-Confucianism.

Greece is a nation that dares to think, challenge and practice. Although some of the most commendable works no longer exist, a careful study of the remaining buildings, sculptures and bottle paintings can still provide insight into the brilliance of Greek artistic achievements. The Parthenon is a masterpiece of Greek architecture and a symbol of people's conquest of nature. Every part of it has a lasting balance, which will not be overturned because the Taurik columns it supports are deliberately different in length. It stretches, stretches, stands upright, strong and harmonious with elegance. The Greeks advocated the beauty of the human body and made statues of Almighty God and outstanding figures of the Olympic Games. They appreciate men's masculinity and women's graceful charm. The posture of the "discus thrower" swinging his arms backwards and twisting his knees always makes people feel an irresistible force. Venus of Milos's elegant "S" shape and broken arm are fascinating. The combination of red and black produces a steady and elegant visual effect. The Greeks used them as glaze colors for firing pottery, and told touching legends on bottles and jars with ever-changing geometric figures and flowing lines: there were carriages galloping on the battlefield, odyssey's arduous journey back to China, and the seductive voice of Sai Ren, a banshee in the depths of the sea. No wonder Marx spoke highly of Greek art, thinking that it can not only give spiritual enjoyment to future generations, but also be "a standard and unattainable model in a sense". Time can pass and strength can be replaced, but the civilization created by the Greeks will never be erased like an eternal flame.

Ancient Rome:

culture

The dominant culture of the Eastern Roman Empire was Greek culture. Greek is not only a daily language, but also a homonym of church, literature and business. For the Romans at that time, the distinction between "Latin Empire in the West" and "Greek Empire in the East" and the emphasis that the Eastern Empire was not a "real" Roman Empire were not important. Roman Empire is a multilingual empire, and East Rome is no exception. In this country, there are Greeks, Flach, Armenians, Jews, Egyptians, Syrians, Iranians and Slavs, all of whom have their own languages. However, Greek culture spread from the imperial cities of Constantinople, Antioch, Ephesus, Thessaloniki and Alexandria to the whole country. Although it was not obvious at that time, the Eastern Roman Empire formed its own style under the influence of its scholars such as John Guisso Si Tong.