Western sculpture tradition originated from ancient Greek and Roman culture, but ancient Greek sculpture was deeply influenced by ancient Egyptian sculpture.
With the development of social productivity and the disintegration of primitive communes, the earliest slave countries appeared in the world, and ancient Egypt was one of them. The sculpture art in Egypt began around 4000 BC, and the birth of the construction industry gave birth to the bud of art decoration. It has preserved the remnants of primitive society for a long time, and Egyptian mythology and religious beliefs dominated the formation and development of sculpture. The conservatism of myth and religious belief is the main reason for the slow development of Egyptian sculpture.
Egyptian sculpture served the Pharaoh regime and a few slave owners and nobles. Dominated by religious ideology, it strictly follows the aesthetic views and needs of the upper class. Apart from some works in tombs, the most influential sculptures in ancient Egypt are decorative sculptures and memorial sculptures in front of tombs and temples. Pyramids are the most famous sculptures. The highest is pyramid of khufu. The huge sphinx in front of the pyramid is carved from a huge rock, which is the largest and most famous sculpture in ancient times.
The remarkable achievements of Egyptian sculpture are the result of long-term exploration by Egyptian sculptors. Its sculpture art left a brilliant page in the history of ancient world art.
The aesthetic ideal of ancient Egyptian sculpture is to pursue eternity, while that of ancient Greek sculpture is to pursue true beauty.
The themes of Greek sculptures are mostly taken from myths or sports competitions. At that time, some enlightened rulers not only devoted themselves to internal affairs and armed forces, but also advocated the development of art and literature. In the hundreds of years after the 6th century BC, famous scientists, writers and artists in ancient Greece made brilliant achievements, and sculpture was an important aspect of the brilliant cultural achievements in this period.
There are many small islands in the Aegean Sea, among which Barros Island is rich in marble, which provides the best material for carving. As far as the change and development of artistic style are concerned, Greek sculpture can be divided into antique period, classical period and Hellenistic period.
The archaic period is the training stage for sculptors. During this period, after long-term exploration by sculptors, it opened the way for later sculptors. One of the most famous sculptors is Miron. The discus thrower is his masterpiece. In the classical period, the social thoughts and religious concepts of the Greeks changed greatly, and the sculpture art gradually tended to emphasize the depiction of characters' personalities and emotions. During the Hellenistic period, sculptors inherited traditional techniques and endowed their works with new vitality and new characteristics.
Sculptors in ancient Greece have rich knowledge and highly realistic skills about the human body. The lines of clothing lines are vivid, smooth and changeable, which not only shows the texture of clothing, but also shows the beauty of human body through clothing. Greek sculptures have created lofty, elegant and perfect characters.
Roman sculpture developed on the basis of inheriting the Greek sculpture heritage to a great extent, and made a unique contribution to portrait sculpture, which is inseparable from the traditional custom of the Romans to worship the remains of their ancestors.
Due to the popularity of monks' customs and sacrificial ceremonies, ancient Roman sculptors often depicted the images of costume characters. Early Roman sculptures were monopolized by a few slave owners and nobles. At that time, sculptors carved many images of Roman emperors, showing them as heroic commanders. For example, a statue of Augustus in the Vatican Museum shows the instantaneous action of the Roman emperor holding a scepter and lecturing his subordinates.
Portrait sculpture in this period is famous for its realistic style. Sculptors are good at using exaggerated and generalized artistic techniques to describe characters in detail, give up cumbersome things and strengthen the sense of movement. In addition, Roman sculptors decorated many circular sculptures and reliefs on Roman buildings, squares and memorial columns. The famous buildings in the 3rd century include the Arc de Triomphe in septimus and Luce, and the public bathrooms in caracalla.
Ancient Roman sculpture is an important part of western ancient civilization and has made outstanding contributions to the development of western realistic sculpture.
2. The main reasons for the special development of ancient Roman architecture
Ancient Greece and Rome are the cradles of European civilization. Their sphere of influence at that time was far beyond the geographical scope of Greece and Italy now, affecting Europe, Asia and Africa. The history of ancient Greece can be traced back to the Aegean cultural period (about 3000 BC-about 1 100 BC), but its most prosperous period is from the 5th century BC to the middle of the 4th century BC, which is called the "classical period". The most famous sculptures and buildings in ancient Greece were produced in the "classical period" and the "Hellenistic period" after that. In 146 BC, ancient Greece was destroyed by Rome.
The history of ancient Rome can be traced back to the "Ida Larrea period" from the 8th century BC to the 6th century BC. After that, it went through * * * (509 BC-30 BC) and empire (27 BC-476 AD), and the empire was the most powerful. Most of the sculptures and architectural masterpieces in ancient Rome were produced in the "imperial period".
Sculptures in ancient Greece and Rome, especially those in the classical period and Hellenistic period, are characterized by pursuing a harmonious ideal beauty. Its outstanding achievements are embodied in the sculpture of portraits (including statues), especially the sculpture of human body. The achievements of ancient Roman sculpture focused on portrait sculpture, which was characterized by realism and individuality.
Ancient Greek sculpture is particularly developed, and the main reasons for the popularity of human sculpture are:
First of all, slavery in ancient Greece led to a greater division of labor between agriculture and handicrafts, and a clear division of labor between manual labor and mental labor. In this way, a considerable number of people specialize in handicraft labor and artistic creation activities related to art, and an important feature of Greek slavery is slavery democracy. Compared with slavery autocracy in other countries, people's creativity is less suppressed, and artists' works are more valued.
Secondly, the culture and art of ancient Greece is not only a creative activity, but also a part of its life. For example, the most developed drama in ancient Greece originated from the activities of offering sacrifices to Dionysus, and later developed into a national celebration festival. Not only does every citizen have at least one day to see a play every year, but the government also gives theater subsidies. Similarly, in order to meet the needs of foreign predatory wars or defensive wars, and for the maritime trade on which they depend for their livelihood, the Greeks urgently needed strong and martial warriors, so they attached great importance to sports from a very early age. In 776 BC, they held the first Olympic Games in Olympia (this is the origin of the current Olympic Games). It will be held every four years in the future, which is a major festival in Greece. Athletes who win prizes in sports competitions encourage and commemorate them by making statues for them. Sculpture creation became a part of ancient Greek life. What's more, the ancient Greeks who believed in gods had to make statues for their revered gods. Greek mythology has the characteristics of "God is similar to man". Making a statue for God is also an idealized statue for them, and God is also a portrait. At the same time, because the ancient Greeks attached importance to physical exercise, it was a great honor to exercise a strong body. These bodybuilding figures that can be seen everywhere have created unparalleled advantages for the development of portrait sculpture.
In particular, men in ancient Greece were naked during physical exercise. This is not only conducive to exercising a strong body, but also naturally cultivates an atmosphere that can treat nude images with an open and naive attitude and consciously and enthusiastically pursue human beauty. Even some grand celebrations of the whole people have become occasions to show off and show off the beauty of the human body. It is such a special social fashion and the resulting special aesthetic concept that determines that portrait sculptures in ancient Greece often take the form of nudity, which has reached an unparalleled height in expressing the beauty of the human body. As belinsky, a famous Russian literary critic in the19th century, said, "The statue of the Greeks was painted in the form of nudity: in others' eyes, it may be brazen and unsightly, but in the ancient world, it was once a pure poem and an appreciation of human dignity." (See the general characteristics of Greek art)
In addition, the ancient Greeks were a nation with a particularly developed aesthetic concept. Pericles once proudly said, "We are people who love beauty." They repeatedly discussed the correct proportional relationship in portrait sculpture and temple architecture, which is the outstanding embodiment of this concept of beauty. All these created better conditions for the prosperity and development of ancient Greek art than other countries at the same time. It is no accident that ancient Greek art can produce such fruitful results that we often draw nutrition from it today.
Temple architecture was the most developed in ancient Greece. Its greatest influence on later generations is its perfect architectural form. That is, a continuous corridor is surrounded by Liang Shi and stone pillars around the rectangular building main body, and the columns, beams and gables at the top of the two slopes form the main facade of the building. After hundreds of years of continuous evolution, this architectural form has reached a very perfect position, and the combination of base, column and eaves has a certain format, which is called "column". The appearance of columns had a great influence on later buildings in Europe.
Ancient Roman Architecture The ancient Romans made great achievements in arch structure technology because they invented concrete composed of natural volcanic ash, sandstone and lime. In terms of architectural art, Rome inherited the Greek column art and combined it with the voucher arch structure to create the voucher column. Let Roman architecture look more gorgeous in artistic style. At the same time, in order to meet the needs of the huge Roman Empire, the ancient Romans created a series of new architectural types. Vitruvi, a Roman architect, summed up the practical experience of his predecessors and wrote a systematic book on architectural theory: Ten Books on Architecture. First of all, he put forward three elements of architecture with far-reaching influence: practicality, firmness and beauty.
Several standardized art forms of ancient European stone beam-column structures are the basis of western classical architecture. Including the thickness and height of the column body, the upper eaves of the column and the artistic form of the base under the column. Mature columns, such as those in Greek architecture, have a general regulation on the proportion of each part, and their characteristics are very distinctive. Different columns determine the artistic style of architecture to a certain extent.
Doric column is one of the two basic columns in ancient Greek architecture. It reached maturity in the middle of the 5th century BC. Its main feature is that there is no column base, the column is directly placed on the abutment, the height of the column is 4-6 times the diameter of the column, the column body is engraved with vertical parallel grooves (generally 16-20), and the stigma is composed of squares and disks without any decoration. Its shape is strong and powerful, giving people a deep and resolute feeling, close to the beauty of men's bodies.
Ionian order is also translated as "Ionian order" One of the two most basic pillars in ancient Greek architecture, which is roughly the same as the Doric pillar in the mature period. Its main feature is that it has a column foundation, and there are a pair of scrolls before and after the stigma. The ratio of column height to column diameter increases, and the groove of column body also increases, giving people a soft feeling, which is close to the beauty of female body.
Corinthian order The third order of ancient Greek architecture was developed on the basis of Ionian order. Its stigma is carved with buttercup leaves, which is very gorgeous, and the other parts are the same as Ionian columns. This pillar was produced in the second half of the 5th century BC.
2. Works of art
Three goddesses (the Parthenon is gabled in relief, marble, 1 12 cm high, 449- 400 BC, now in the British Museum in London).
This is one of the famous sculptures in classical Greece. Formerly known as "the three goddesses of fate". It was originally a high relief at the end of the right corner of the gable in the front of the Parthenon. The theme comes from Greek mythology. The existing statues of these three goddesses have lost their heads and limbs, but their strong and handsome figures and quiet and unique postures still give people an extremely beautiful image. Especially for the treatment of the clothes of the three goddesses, the Greek thin shirt is worn on the three goddesses, and the slender and complicated wet clothes pleats fluctuate with the structure of the human body, showing the beautiful outline of the female human body incisively and vividly. These statues are not carved from cold marble, but real people.
Miron's discus thrower (marble, Roman replica, 5th century BC, in the National Museum of Rome).
Miron was a famous sculptor in ancient Greece in the first half of the 5th century BC. He is good at using realistic techniques to creatively depict the dynamics of characters in strenuous exercise. The discus thrower is his most important masterpiece in this respect. Miron created an excellent and energetic athlete image in this work. In particular, the author's originality lies in that he summarizes the whole continuous process of discus throwing and shows a dynamic beauty. The discus thrower's open arms are like a full bow, which is reminiscent of getting into the water. The discus and the head of the two circles echo left and right; The right leg clings to the ground like a shaft, keeping the tortuous body stable. The whole statue gives people the feeling of being fit, solemn, harmonious and full of youthful vitality. The reason why athletes are naked is determined by the social customs of ancient Greeks. Because when the ancient Greeks were engaged in sports and religious and cultural performances, men were often naked. They believe that a perfect and healthy human body is the pride of human beings and the embodiment of divinity. This social custom, in turn, promoted the development of Greek human statues and formed the artistic tradition of western art advocating human beauty.
The goddess of victory of Sodom Drake (marble, 328 cm high, about 200 BC, located in the Louvre in Paris)
This work was named after it was discovered in 1863 on the island of Samodrak in the northern Aegean Sea. When the statue was unearthed, it was already in pieces. After four years of careful repair, it stood up again, but it still lacked a head and no arms. Later, the base of the statue and fragments of the goddess' left hand and some fingers were found. There are all kinds of speculations about what the original posture of the goddess looks like, which are not sufficient. But one thing is certain, that is, it was created by Demetrious I, the ruler of Asia Minor, to commemorate his great defeat in the fleet of Ptolemy Kingdom in a naval battle. It was originally placed on a cliff on the coast of Sodom Drake Island, facing the vast sea. Although the goddess of victory is a common theme in ancient Greek sculpture, it is different from other statues of the goddess of victory. First of all, the concept of this statue is very novel. The author made the base into the bow of a warship. The goddess of victory descended from the sky and stood at the bow to guide the fleet through the wind and waves. It not only meets the needs of commemorating the victory of a naval battle, but also vividly expresses the theme of victory in the battle. Secondly, the works give full play to the characteristics of three-dimensional modeling of sculpture. Although the statue has lost its head and arms, you can feel the majestic posture of the goddess of victory spreading her wings from any angle. The upper body of the statue leans forward and moves silently; Viewed from the side, the nipple of the goddess is the highest point, and the wavy lines of the face and wings form a blunt triangle, thus strengthening the forward trend. It is no wonder that the Louvre in Paris, along with Aphrodite by Milos and Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci, is called the three treasures of the Louvre.
The lancer of Polycritus (marble, Roman replica, second half of 5th century BC)
Polycritus was one of the most famous sculptors in ancient Greece in the 5th century BC. He is good at expressing the image of young athletes, and the materials used are all bronze. It is said that he also wrote a paper on the proportion of human body: rules. It's a pity that none of his original works exist, leaving only a few copies of the Roman period, such as "The Spear Bearer" and "The Young Man with Hair". Among them, the spear holder is particularly important. It shaped the image of a strong and energetic young soldier, reflecting the ancient Greeks' reverence for the soldiers who bravely defended their country after the victory of the Persian War. At the same time, it also verifies the author's long-term research on the proportion of human body, that is, he thinks that the most ideal proportion of human body is the ratio of head to whole body of 7∶ 1. According to this proportion, the human body looks short and fat, but it is shown in a balanced and natural posture and strict proportion, which conforms to the standards of Greek aesthetic taste at that time. So that sculptors at that time called this statue "the law", that is, regarded it as the law and model of human beauty.
Hermes in praxiteles and young Dionysus (marble, 213cm high, 350-330 BC, collected in the Olympia Museum).
Praxiteles is the most famous sculptor in the late Greek classical period. "Hermes and Young Dionysus" is his most representative work, which was unearthed in 1877 in the former site of the inner temple of the Temple of Hera in Olympia, so it is also called Hermes of Olympia. It shows Hermes, the messenger in Greek mythology, holding the illegitimate child of Zeus, Dionysus in Greek mythology and Dionysus as a child, and taking a short rest on the way to the mountain goddess. Now, Hermes' right hand has been damaged. According to research, it turns out that the right hand is holding a bunch of grapes to tease the child. The main feature of this statue is that Hermes' human body pursues a kind of female beauty, that is, the whole human body forms three natural turning points (head, trunk and lower limbs) from top to bottom, making the whole body form an S-shape, which is close to the curvaceous beauty pursued by later female human bodies. At the same time, the author also gives full play to the characteristics of marble texture, and strives to pursue the delicate changes and beautiful and subtle lines of human muscles, so that the whole human body is closer to the richness of female skin. This is in stark contrast to the heroic style of male statues in the early classical period. Therefore, Praxiteles is generally regarded as a sculptor who created a new generation of sculpture.
Aphrodite of Milos (Greece) (carved on marble, 202 cm high, about 150 BC, located in the Louvre in Paris)
The reputation of ancient Greek sculpture is nothing more than Aphrodite of Milos. This work was named after the discovery of 1820 in Milos Island, Aegean Sea. It is carved from two pieces of marble, and the seam is at the junction of the naked trunk and the clothes. Dignified figure, plump skin, elegant face, beautiful smile and slightly distorted standing posture all constitute a very harmonious and beautiful gesture. Although the arm of the statue is incomplete, people's appreciation psychology has accumulated due to the age, and the broken arm has aroused people's beautiful imagination, thus improving people's appreciation interest and making people feel that it is extraordinary. From the artistic style, it combines the noble and beautiful styles in Greek sculpture. Its broad and concise techniques are reminiscent of the solemn and lofty sculptures created by Pheidias on the Parthenon. Its dignified and elegant posture and appearance remind people of the beautiful and lyrical female body sculpture created by Praxiteles. No wonder/kloc-Rodin, a French sculptor in the 0/9th century, called this statue an "ancient wonder".