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[Paper Keywords] adult learning psychological factors learning strategies

Abstract: Adult learning belongs to the basic theoretical category of adult education. Psychological factors affecting adult learning are composed of individual psychological factors and social psychological factors. In this paper, through the analysis of internal and external factors to achieve a deeper understanding of adult learning.

The psychological factors of adult learning have the characteristics of diversification and multi-level. "People's psychological development includes people's cognitive ability, emotion, will and psychological external manifestations-the formation and change of various behaviors to meet needs, as well as the level of people's psychological needs and the overall structure and characteristics of individual psychology-the formation and change of personality". In other words, the psychological guarantee of adult learning should be analyzed from the cognitive occurrence, motivation, emotion and social psychological factors of the external world.

First, individual psychological factors and adult learning

The main factor affecting individual learning psychology is individual psychological aging. "In the development of adults, aging is the most obvious and prominent development phenomenon, and it is also the most important part that affects adult learning activities." ② Psychological aging is more fundamental than physiological aging. The individual's perception level of aging determines the role of the latter in adult development and learning. In adult learning, the positive significance of psychological aging is mainly developed through internal factors such as cognition, emotion and motivation.

cognitive ability

Cognition is of fundamental significance to the learning and development of adults. According to the traditional view, the cognitive ability of adults gradually declines with the increase of age, thus drawing the conclusion that the possibility of adult development and learning will be lacking. As far as the study of perceptual ability is concerned, generally speaking, the perceptual ability of adults decreases with the increase of age, especially in the late adulthood. The decline of vision, hearing, smell and taste caused by physiological aging of adults directly affects the information intake and information processing speed. However, the issue of adult memory has always been controversial. Generally speaking, with the increase of age, memory will gradually decline, but recently some cognitive psychologists have put forward the opposite view. After entering adulthood, "the mechanical memory of adults declines greatly, and the age of decline begins earlier; The decline of comprehension and memory is small, and the decline age is late; Generally speaking, adults are not as good as teenagers in mechanical memory, but they are better than teenagers in meaning memory. "Experimental research shows that adults tend to learn meaningfully, that is, use existing experience and knowledge to maintain and copy new material information. In this sense, for adults, if there are no physical obstacles, the learning ability should be gradually improved with age. Generally speaking, cognitive psychology expounds the essence and process of intelligence and is a theory about intelligence. Starting from Thorndike's psychological demonstration of adult learning, it should be said that the study of adult intelligence is always accompanied by the study of adult learning process. Wexler, Cartel, Shea, anany Ye Fu and others have further deepened the research in this field. Among them, the more representative adult intelligence theories are Carter's fluid and crystal intelligence theory and Shea's adult intelligence adaptation theory. Cartel's crystal intelligence is based on accumulated experience or knowledge, which is obtained through study or training, and effectively demonstrates the legitimacy of adult learning. Shea, on the other hand, based on Piaget's premise of intellectual adaptation, proposed that the mental decline gradually became obvious after the age of 60. This series of studies strongly refutes the wrong views such as adult incompetence theory and adult children theory. Adult cognitive ability is of fundamental significance to adult learning. Adult educators' effective understanding of adult cognitive laws can enhance the pertinence and effectiveness of courses, which is conducive to improving the effectiveness and scientificity of adult teaching, adult courses, teaching materials and adult education purposes.

(2) Emotional factors

Adult emotional problems are relatively low-level emotional forms, which are often formed by external stimuli, physiological factors and cognitive factors, and are the characteristics of adults. Emotions that affect adult learning are also varied, including physiological, psychological and social reactions. Adults' learning emotions are different at different ages. Hall believes that the emotions in early adulthood have gradually changed from "high winds and angry waves" in youth to "relatively stable stereotypes". By the middle of adulthood, adults can weigh, adjust, judge or suppress their emotions according to situational experience. Due to the influence of physiological menopause, disease, aging, social pressure and other factors, a series of emotional disorders are prone to appear in middle adulthood. At this time, learning activities should pay more attention to overcoming the crisis. After entering adulthood, with the retirement of the elderly, their emotions are more personalized. From the perspective of * * *, the emotions of the elderly are more manifested in the form of emotional disorders, and the study and education of the elderly should pay more attention to the adjustment of their emotions and attitudes. At present, there is a tendency to popularize the teaching and examination of adults, especially the education of the elderly, ignoring the characteristics of adults at different ages, leading to adults' anxiety, fear and aversion to learning.

(C) Motivational factors

At present, the research on the theories and types of adult learning motivation mostly focuses on the constraints of social factors. Representative adult learning theories abroad include Miller's power field analysis theory, Hall's learning orientation model, Robinson's expected price model, Boushall's consistent model, Taft's expected income theory and Croce's chain reaction model. The starting point of these theories is the interaction between social factors and adult individuals, but each has its own emphasis. For example, Miller emphasized the need for learning motivation caused by the change of social class or adult social responsibility; Robinson pays attention to the intensity and change of learning motivation; Croce analyzed the variables that affect adult learning and their relationships. Through the above analysis, we can make clear the specific operating mechanism of adult learning motivation in the learning environment, which can be divided into three processes: motivation generation, motivation maintenance and reinforcement, and motivation attribution. These processes will not end at once, but will go back and forth. As far as motivation is concerned, the changes of physical, psychological and social roles of adults will last a lifetime, such as the fulfillment of social responsibilities, job training, social changes, emergencies and so on. , can induce certain needs and satisfaction, that is to say, all kinds of related social factors are processed by adults' cognition, resulting in motivation needs, thus entering the next process. After the emergence of motivation, many problems of adult learning disabilities-the most fundamental problem is the cognition of learning needs-restrict the guidance of adult learning motivation to learning activities. The intensity of adult learning motivation is the result of the interaction between advantages and disadvantages in the process of adult cognition. Finally, it turns to the attribution of learning motivation, that is, the value judgment of adults in the process of learning experience. Internal positive efforts, the result of ability, external good luck and the attribution of opportunities can all generate the motivation to continue active learning. On the contrary, it will hinder adults from continuing their studies and make existing experience a negative factor. On the one hand, a correct understanding of the mechanism of motivation can provide constructive suggestions for the curriculum setting of adult education and the goal orientation of adult learning; On the other hand, it can provide some ideas for stimulating and cultivating learning motivation.

Second, socio-psychological factors and adult learning

Posted in China Paper Download Center.

Paper Keywords: emotion; Cognition; evaluate

Abstract: There are two views on the cognitive function of emotion. One view is that cognitive evaluation is a necessary prerequisite for emotional production. One kind thinks that emotion does not necessarily need the participation of cognitive evaluation. This paper holds that the existence of differences is mainly due to the lack of consistent understanding of the connotation of emotion and the path of emotional cognitive evaluation. Therefore, through the analysis of the existing research, this paper expounds that the cognitive viewpoint of emotion can be expressed and detected through concepts and experiences; Explain the phenomenon that emotion precedes cognitive evaluation from the perspective of cognition; Emphasize that there are many forms of cognitive evaluation of emotion; It supports the view that evaluation is the basis of emotion generation.

Although there are many views on the relationship between cognition and emotion at present, they are mainly divided into two types: one thinks that cognitive evaluation is a necessary prerequisite for emotion; One thinks that emotional state can occur before cognitive evaluation, that is, some emotions do not necessarily need the participation of cognitive evaluation. In view of the different evidences and perspectives used in different studies, some researchers believe that cognitive evaluation is an important but not the only factor that produces emotions. The existence of differences is mainly due to the lack of consistent understanding of the connotation of emotions and the path of emotional cognitive evaluation, and the lack of the same operational explanation. Therefore, this paper aims to clarify the concept and empirical nature of cognitive view through the analysis of existing research; Explain the phenomenon that emotion precedes cognitive evaluation from a cognitive perspective; There are many forms of cognitive evaluation that emphasize emotion, but emotion and cognitive evaluation are inseparable. Automated, conditioned, and restored emotions are only the performance of emotional evaluation recovery.

First, the connotation of emotion

(A) the definition of emotion

Research shows that emotions generally have four components: cognition, motivation, body and subjective experience. Cognitive component is a representation of some emotional meanings or individual differences related to people's perception of the world. These representations may be conscious or unconscious. Motivation component involves the tendency to influence how individuals interpret the world, which is related to real behavior. Body composition involves the activation of autonomic and central nervous system and its influence on internal organs and bones. One of the characteristics of this component is the change of body-centered emotions, but the processes of neurochemistry and neuroanatomy make it possible to produce emotions. Finally, the subjective experience component is the "subjective feeling" of all emotions. Assuming that these ingredients are particularly fine in humans, they often involve the labeling of emotions and the awareness of the integration of emotions, beliefs, desires and physical feelings. Therefore, when considering the interaction between these components and the intensity and duration of emotions, it is difficult to say what emotions are.

Some studies believe that the types of emotional cognitive components in evaluation theory are unmeasurable. For example, the characteristics of a certain emotion are defined as "unpleasantness in anticipation of unexpected events", and its emotion can be called "fear emotion", in which evaluation can be regarded as a component of emotion. Here, fear is caused by the possibility of evaluating a specific result as an accident, which is only a hypothesis. If there are other components of fear except evaluation, then this example of fear is not appropriate. But this view is related to the daily emotional way and is consistent with people's emotional experience. In addition, defining evaluation will not make emotions unreasonable because of the opinions involved in the evaluation. For example, considering the concept of "disease", a disease is defined as a symptom caused by a special pathogen, and a symptom without related pathogens is not a disease. But the concept definition is still very useful, in part because it can point to the concepts of pathogens and pathogens that cause diseases, so as to measure the degree of remission of diseases. Similarly, in order to measure the degree of emotional pain relief, we can point to the special evaluation method of composing emotions.

From this, we can think that emotions can be defined by evaluation (concept) or composed of evaluation (experience). In addition, the definition of emotion, a complex phenomenon, should be revised at any time according to new research evidence. For example, if a person thinks that blame is part of the definition of anger, but the study finds that most people define anger without blame, then this definition is not sufficient. The meaning of words can be defined concretely, but phenomena can't. The "meaning" of phenomena should be presented in theory and explanation, not in definition. If this view holds, then the thorny problem of the terminology meaning of complex phenomena can be solved in this way. Therefore, the meaning of the complex phenomenon of emotional terms cannot be fully demonstrated in the definition, and it can only be said that the word "emotion" only involves the phenomenon surrounding the emotional theory.

(B) the boundaries between emotion and non-emotion

If the cognitive basis of emotional state does not exist, then the problem of definition is particularly important. For example, depression and persistent anxiety may be caused by purely biochemical reasons, so feelings of depression and anxiety can be generated without any cognitive assessment. The research thinks that emotion has a key cognitive component, not for all emotions, but only for emotions.

In the definition of emotion, emotion is an emotional state (positive or negative price) with purpose and intention for something, but not every emotion constitutes an emotion. For example, the degree of fear is an emotional state that directly points to a specific goal and can be described by emotion; The degree of anxiety is an emotional state without specific goals, which can be described as non-emotion. Therefore, when people are afraid, the specific thing that fear points to is the key; When people feel anxious, anxiety does not mean anything. From a biological point of view, the special activities of the fear system do not consider emotions and moods. But from the psychological point of view, the distinction between the two is very important, because emotions are closely related to coping, while mood is not. Mood is just an emotional state, which is completely aroused by physiological reasons. Anxiety is like fear, but the information conveyed by anxiety is not necessarily the feedback about the real situation.

However, it is important to realize that emotions and other aimless emotional states can easily be transformed into emotions. Persistent emotional anxiety will turn aimless anxiety into purposeful fear, which will lead to threatening explanations and other vague situations. Although, from the cognitive point of view, there are important differences between aimless anxiety and threat, there is no biological difference between the new emotions produced by these senses and the aimless anxiety that precedes them, and the new emotions with goals can be called emotions and can act as emotions.

The hypothesis of emotional information shows that pre-existing emotions will affect the evaluation process. This hypothesis holds that people tend to experience emotions at the moment when emotional reactions occur. Therefore, the persistent emotion in the process of judgment and decision-making can be regarded as the feedback experience of target judgment and decision-making. Recent studies have found that anxiety experienced in risk assessment tasks can increase the possibility of perceiving threat events, which proves the above hypothesis. Therefore, when anxiety is regarded as the information that a threatening event is coming, anxious people will feel fear.

Because the emotion has a goal, it urges the question to point to the response. In individuals with moderate anxiety, this may lead to a tendency to form a worried and cautious personality style, while individuals with persistent anxiety or depression may deal with the threatening information provided by emotions in vain. However, not being able to control his emotional perception will lead to learned helplessness.

In short, just as emotions inevitably contain various phenomena, defining terms also involves complex phenomena. Therefore, although there are different opinions, the principles of evaluation theory are definite and empirical. In fact, it is not cognitive theory of emotion's task to explain non-emotional emotional states. In particular, there is no need to worry about the situation that emotions precede cognitive evaluation. Consistent with the existing viewpoint of emotional research, emotion is a targeted emotional state. If emotions are distinguished from other emotional states in this way, then according to the emotional information hypothesis, emotions from non-cognition can provide information for the evaluation process of real emotions.

Second, the path of emotional evaluation

(A) the bottom-up path: situation analysis

Based on the viewpoint of emotional evaluation theory, evaluation models can be divided into "bottom-up" and "top-down", which are relative. Bottom-up model means that the realization of evaluation mainly depends on people's integrated interpretation of information from the perceived world. This view holds that people should constantly evaluate the situation related to them in real time, no matter whether the situation is good or bad. For example, a woman was angry when she learned that her friend stole books from the bookstore where she worked and resold them. According to the bottom-up model analysis, when she knew that her friend's behavior violated important standards, she experienced disapproval. In addition, her description of the incident also shows that she was angry at the incident because the goal of maintaining her friendship was threatened. It can also be expected that this perception will lead to anger, because when the behavior of disapproval (violation of standards) is combined with the unpleasant result of the event (obstruction of the target), it will lead to similar anger.

Therefore, on the basis of perception, there are three value structures: goal, standard and attitude. In particular, the evaluation of event results is based on whether it promotes or hinders the realization of goals and aspirations, and the standards are related to behavior evaluation and have nothing to do with events. Whether behavior is praised or derogated mainly depends on whether behavior is higher or lower than moral, social and behavioral standards. Finally, attitudes and preferences provide the basis for evaluating the objectives. No matter what is regarded as a goal, people either think it is attractive or not. The reason for the difference between the two depends on whether the goal is consistent with the personal love and attitude.

It can be seen that different sources of value will trigger different emotional reactions. When the goal is the source of value, the individual is happy with the evaluation result that conforms to the desire, but unhappy with the evaluation result that does not conform to the desire. When the standard is the source of value, the emotional reaction to arouse approval or disapproval depends on whether the behavior is evaluated as commendable or condemnable, while when attitude or love is the source of value, people prefer attractive goals to unattractive ones. It is worth noting that specific emotions are the result of one or more differentiation of these three emotional reactions. The ways to feel happy or unhappy about the result of things include happiness, sadness, hope, fear, disappointment, belief, satisfaction and regret. What kind of emotion it causes depends on whether the result is past (happiness, sadness) or expected (hope, fear), and the result it cares about itself or others (satisfaction, regret).

On the contrary, some emotions have standards. Pride, shyness, jealousy and blame are the forms of one's emotional response to behavior approval or disapproval. The specific emotions depend on whether the behavior is directed at oneself (pride, shyness) or at others (envy, blame). For example, when someone drinks too much at a party and loses control, he will feel shy. Shyness is considered as a reaction to violating social standards in public places.

Other emotions are based on attitude or preference. Temporary likes, dislikes, disgust and other emotions are all forms of emotional reactions of likes and dislikes. How preferences and preferences are formed at present is still a difficult problem. Obviously, even in this field, cognition plays a role. Finally, a person's anger depends on the degree of dissatisfaction with the outcome of the matter and the degree to which the related behavior should be blamed, in addition to the emotions based on the goal standard or attitude, such as anger and gratitude, including the combination of goal and standard.

In any given situation, the existing emotional experience will change with the shift of one's attention between results, behaviors and contained goals. Therefore, the same thing can make people feel many different emotions in a short time and space. In this cognitive way, each emotional type takes a formal emotional norm as its own characteristic. For example, fear emotion involves anticipation of unpleasant events, shyness emotion involves disapproval of condemned behavior, and disgust emotion involves dislike of unattractive goals. The perceived probability of unpleasant or pleasant events is one of the cognitive variables that affect fear or hope, and the degree to which individuals perceive that their academic performance is lower than normal expectations affects the degree of shyness.

In short, just because an emotion has a cognitive component does not mean that the emotion itself is a cognitive event. Some studies believe that emotions are metacognitive or metacognitive. Emotion is not only a reaction to the cognitive results of evaluation process, but also a non-cognitive form of evaluation. It is better to say that evaluation directly leads to the emotions and beliefs that represent the importance of the situation than to the belief in the situation. Therefore, evaluation is to transform the psychological representation of the original sensory perception to make it have emotional significance. In this sense, emotions have cognitive components. However, emotions are multifaceted, including the simultaneous representation of physiological, empirical and cognitive emotional meanings.

(B) Top-down path: recovery assessment

Not all situations can stand the test of bottom-up cognitive analysis. For example, a veteran reported that he was defeated by panic while working in a greenhouse. Obviously, the high temperature, humidity and tropical trees in the greenhouse triggered the traumatic reaction he felt during the war. In this reaction, the ordinary fragments of the current experience vividly restore the early experience and its emotional significance. When this reaction first appeared, it was really strange, so I questioned the cognitive reasons.

The above situation shows that there is another source of emotional value, which comes from the reduction of previous evaluations in early situations, rather than the immediate evaluation based on the goals, standards and attitudes of the current new situations. Researchers believe that the roots of these two emotional values are expected by the initial evaluation of emotions. People often use similar experiences in the past to evaluate new situations, just like veterans in greenhouses.

In a word, emotion reflects the cognitive evaluation of emotional individual goals and worries, which is not only reflected in cases directly related to evaluation and emotion, but also reflected in cases similar to fear veterans. Fear is a response to threat assessment. Veterans' evaluation of greenhouse threat is unconscious and emotional, which is based on whether the current situation is similar to the threat experienced in the past. When the situation presents special meaning, it will arouse special emotions. Whether emotional arousal comes from the similarity of past situations or from new analysis, it is the activation of the deep structure of situational meaning that triggers emotions. This just gives the situation a special meaning that produces anger, fear, shyness or sadness. However, such meaning may appear in many ways, and recovery is only one of them.

Third, assess the evidence of recovery.

Freud believed that the emotional meaning in daily life can be traced back to his early experience, so his research mainly focused on how traumatic situations triggered many subsequent emotional cases through association, including obvious poetic, figurative and symbolic associations that often appeared in dreams, poems and humor. In his view, specific emotions are derived from traumatic situations experienced in childhood, including birth trauma and Oedipus plot situations, and anxiety is an overreaction to stress stimulation, which can be explained on the basis of the initial excessive stress experience. Being born is the first experience of anxiety, so it is also the root and prototype of emotional anxiety.

Freud assumed that other early emotions would reappear in similar situations in later life. For example, the reaction to the authoritative father can be used as the prototype of the reaction to other authoritative figures in the later period, and the experience of the coexistence of positive and negative emotions of parents and siblings in the early stage can be transferred to authorities, colleagues, subordinates, lovers, friends and heroes.

Freud believed that because of the connection between early events and symbolism, the reality can produce emotional power. For example, love is the most frequently mentioned emotion. Love is actually the recovery of early attachment caused by the unconscious association between parents' image and exciting new people. He regards the jealousy, hostility and ambivalence that sometimes appear in love relationship as evidence that the contradiction with his parents has not been well resolved. Therefore, psychotherapy tries to find the contradiction between this unconscious relationship conflict and symbolic authority figures and try to solve it.

Research shows that the key emotional response in early life is the basis of emotional formation in later life, especially love and attachment, which is also the central idea of infant attachment theory. Some researchers believe that "if one does not know how the attachment system affects the process of falling in love and choosing a spouse, it is impossible to understand the behavior of romantic relationships". Comparing the loss-benefit relationship model with the attachment model, it is assumed that the baby has an evolutionary trend of forming a strong connection and attachment with the main caregivers. When children are separated from caregivers, this bond is very obvious in strong emotional resistance.

The early attachment model mainly studied "security", "avoidance" and "anxiety". According to the current research, these individual differences in attachment emotions remain intact and will be restored at any time in adult romantic attachment. The emotional recovery caused by the reappearance of early attachment situations is essentially the product of romantic intervention and emotional combination.

The idea that people learn from early experience is not prominent in reduction theory, but the idea that the present situation can make people recall all early experiences instead of from early experiences or abstract rules implied by them is very clear. The view that a few serious traumatic events are all other emotional sources also supports the view of evaluating recovery. In a word, researchers who hold the theory of recovery expect the importance of cognitive style.

Fourthly, evaluate the cognitive essence of rehabilitation.

Just as the present situation can remind people of early emotional situations, emotions can be induced through the recovery of early emotional meaning. In some situations, people will be surprised by the appearance of these emotions, but this will not change the conditions for inducing emotions, that is, the basic cognitive essence. Some amazing facts of emotions and their subtle and complicated results are not evidence against including cognition. These results are easy to observe in the non-emotional field, and there are cognitive reasons for their obvious appearance. Activators with emotional or non-emotional properties may be complex and highly organized, so evaluating any part of complex structural representation may lead to extensive cognitive participation.

Research shows that as long as the goal has only a little attitude tendency, it can automatically stimulate the original beliefs and even induce individuals in other ways. The result of automatic excitation of cognitive materials is complex and surprising. Complex cognitive structure not only induces potential knowledge, but also induces obvious behavior. Even when we are not aware of the processing process, the materials stimulated by new stimuli in memory are still extensive and complex, and can produce surprising results, regardless of whether they contain emotions or not.

As these results show, spontaneous occurrence and surprise are sometimes attributed to the non-cognitive nature of emotions, which is a common feature of cognitive processing, although this feature also has the ability to integrate a series of emotional events. Therefore, seemingly meaningless cognitive events will produce striking results. The reason is that emotional induction is automatic when the meaning generated by exciting a special structure matches a special emotional induction condition.

The fact that people are blinded by their emotions makes emotions seem beyond the scope of cognitive explanation, but the results of non-emotional substances in memory are equally surprising. This surprise can be attributed to the structural nature of the material in memory, which does not include procedural knowledge as a representative of declarative knowledge, and people do not realize that everything is the result of these processes. Because the relationship between emotional perception and emotional induction is automatic, when a perception does have emotional participation, it can also trigger the whole range of emotional state processes. Although the relationship between evaluation and emotion is unique to emotion, the cognitive process in evaluation is not unique.

Although there are two different ways to stimulate emotions, the essence of emotions is the same regardless of the specific ways involved in ignoring their special circumstances. Whether fear or anger comes from immediate assessment of the environment, change of conditions, imitation of others, or inclination to special species, fear is always a response to obvious threats, and anger is always a response to obvious violations. For example, although emotions and physical activities do not occur in every angry situation, all situations that cause anger still contain the overall perception of all angry people about all the reasons for anger. Situation is the consistency between anger rather than fear or happiness, which is considered as the deep structure of anger situation. A deep structure may have many appearances. What makes the situation angry is not the emotion, thought, expression, discourse, tone or behavior that induces anger, but the deep structure with the same surface and its meaning.

In a word, evaluation is an integral part of emotion, and emotion must reflect the evaluation of situational significance. Evaluation is triggered by two different processes, but it is generally believed that these two different paths of emotions reflect the essence of cognitive process, so they are not unique to emotions. The fact that some components of emotions have been triggered before their causes are fully recognized is not inconsistent with the cognitive point of view. For automatic, conditional, imitated and restored emotions, these are all manifestations of the recovery of emotional evaluation.

Verb (abbreviation of verb) conclusion

1. Evaluation is an integral part and a necessary condition of emotion. Defining terms is a very complicated phenomenon, just as emotional phenomena have various theories. Therefore, the principle of evaluation theory is either conceptual or empirical, and evaluation is both a component and a cause of emotion, which means that to a certain extent, experience can only provide clear concepts that are limited to the development of experience.

2. There are two paths for emotional evaluation, which are based on experience and theory respectively, and can adjust emotions according to different or contradictory goals. However, although there are many ways to obtain the emotional meaning of the situation, only one way is needed to produce meaningful emotions.

3. Emotion is an emotional state with goals and pointing to specific things. "Direction" is an effective way to distinguish emotions from other emotional states. This intentional mental state is the cognitive representation of emotion pointing to things, and representation is the essence of cognition. In order to explain the phenomenon that emotion precedes cognitive evaluation, we can regard the emotional state without clear goals as emotions and the emotional state with clear goals as emotions. The fact that emotions lack clear goals means that emotions are experienced as information about other appropriate goals, which helps to produce real emotional evaluation.

In short, the generation of emotion permeates the role of cognitive evaluation, and the knowledge gained through familiar or direct sensory perception and description or cognitive interpretation of sensory information is only the difference of cognitive style.

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