First, understand the connotation of China's modernization.
The modernization of China should refer to the capitalization of modern China, which is a common view in the field of history. However, there are different views on how to express China's modernization, what is its core content, what are the characteristics of China's modernization compared with Britain and France, and how to grasp the concepts and connotations of "modernization" and "modernization".
The Modern History of China, edited by Xu Tailai, describes the modern history of China during the 80 years from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement according to the historical clues of China's modernization. Xu Tailai pointed out in the "Introduction" of the book that modernization is a concept representing the transformation and transition to modern civilization. It is a historical process of comprehensive changes in all aspects of human society and cannot be simply understood as industrialization. Modernization is mainly manifested in three aspects: first, the development of productive forces, that is, the transformation from manual operation to machine production; Second, the mode of production has changed from feudalism to capitalism; Third, the political transition from feudal autocracy to bourgeois democracy. Modernization marks that human civilization has entered a new height. The core and essence of modernization is capitalism. Therefore, modernization can be called capitalist modernization.
By comparing China's modernization with that of Britain and France, Yuan pointed out the characteristics of China's modernization, and divided the process of China's modernization from the Opium War to 1 10 before the founding of New China into two periods to distinguish their respective connotations. He pointed out that as far as western European countries such as Britain and France are concerned, the so-called modernization is to get rid of the feudal form of the Middle Ages and become capitalism. This is a long historical process, including economic, political, social and ideological changes. Modernization is a comprehensive concept, and its core is economic modernization. Modernization is an inevitable trend in the development of world history, but the modernization process in different countries is different. Compared with the modernization process of Britain, France and other countries, the modernization road of semi-colonial and semi-feudal China has obvious characteristics. In the modernization of Britain, France and other countries, the protagonist is the bourgeoisie and the connotation is capitalism. However, with the changes of the times, the protagonist and connotation of China's modernization have changed. The protagonist of modernization in the first 80 years was the national bourgeoisie, and its connotation was capitalism. In the last 30 years, the proletariat has become the protagonist of modernization, and the connotation of modernization has also become a new democracy that opens the way for socialism. ⑴
Luo Rongqu proposed in his book "A New Theory of Modernization-The Modernization Process of the World and China" that it should be renamed modernization or modernization first. He believes that in recent years, some people have used the word "modernization" in historical works published in China newspapers about the transition from feudalism to capitalism, the industrial revolution, the Meiji Restoration in Japan and the Westernization Movement in China. Some obviously borrowed Japanese history, while others misinterpreted the "modernization" of western languages as "modernization", which is a common phenomenon that the new translated names of foreign words have not yet been finalized. He emphasized that the concept of "modernization" does not apply to the history of China and should be collectively referred to as "modernization". Then, Luo Rongqu defined the meaning of modernization, which can be summarized into four aspects: first, modernization refers to the historical process that economically backward countries catch up with the world's advanced level in economy and technology through technological revolution after the rise of modern capitalism under the specific pattern of international relations; Secondly, modernization is essentially industrialization, more precisely, the process of industrialization in economically backward countries, that is, modernization refers to the historical process of the transformation of human society from traditional agricultural society to modern industrial society; Thirdly, modernization is the general name of the rapid change process of human beings since the scientific revolution; Fourthly, modernization is mainly a process of changing psychological attitudes, values and lifestyles.
According to Luo Rongqu, Qiao Zhiqiang and Long Xing hold that "modernity" or "modernity" is always relative to "tradition". Traditional society and modern society are two different societies, and the process of transformation from traditional society to modern society is the process of modernization. As far as the history of China is concerned, the Opium War of 1840 can be regarded as a milestone in the transformation from a traditional society to a modern society, because since then, tradition has been severely challenged by reality, and the people of China have begun to explore modernization. The modernization process in China's modern history can be called the modernization process. Therefore, it is more appropriate and practical to call it "modernization" in combination with the actual situation of domestic historical research. ⑵
In fact, in the research field of China's modern history, the concepts of "modernization", "modernization" or "early modernization" are basically the same. Many scholars use the term "modernization" or "modernization" to discuss the modernization transformation process of China from a traditional agricultural society to a modern capitalist industrial society, so that some scholars use the concepts of "modernization" or "modernization" alternately in the same or different articles, indicating that the same connotation of these two concepts refers to capitalism in modern China. In this regard, many scholars put forward their own views.
Liu Danian pointed out that the core of modernization is industrialization. From backward feudal society to industrialization, it is inseparable from capitalism. China's feudal economy is quite developed, and it is a historical development trend to move towards capitalism and realize modernization. ⑶
Lin Jiayou believes that the modernization of China, also called "modernization", refers to the capitalist modernization from 1840 to 1949. Whether it is modernization or modernization, in the final analysis, the main carrier of modern China's decision to undertake the task of modernization is China's bourgeoisie, so modernization is actually capitalism. ⑷
Li Wenhai pointed out that China's modernization, which began in the late Qing Dynasty, is also called "modernization" and has the same meaning. Modernization is not only an economic problem, it is always the product of the comprehensive action of many factors such as economy, politics, ideology and culture. China from the end of 19 to the beginning of the 20th century, modernization is capitalism, which is undoubtedly correct. But capitalism is not just the development of capitalist economy. Economic development often needs political and other means to open the way for it. ⑸
Therefore, the concept of "modernization" or "modernization" reveals the connotation of modern capitalism. As to whether the core of modernization is economic problems or industrialization, or whether modernization is regarded as a comprehensive product of economy, politics, ideology and culture, this is just the difference in scholars' understanding of the content and scope of modernization.
Second, about the types of modernization in China.
Historians generally believe that the modernization of the world is an inevitable trend of historical development, but the modernization process of countries around the world is not the same, and there are also differences in types. Therefore, many scholars began to pay attention to the discussion of modernization or types of modernization, with a view to revealing the characteristics of China's modernization and promoting the research on this issue to a deeper level. Many scholars regard Britain and France and other countries as the first countries to complete the transition from an agricultural society to an industrial society and gradually realize modernization through the social transformation of establishing a capitalist system, which is called "early endogenous modernization"; The modernization of a country that has been invaded by western powers and started to explore modernization with western capitalism as an example is called "late-comer exogenous modernization", and China's modernization or modernization belongs to the latter type.
Guma pointed out that the modernization in China's modern history belongs to late exogenous modernization in type. The obvious difference between it and early endogenous modernization is that it is not the result of the continuous maturity and accumulation of internal modernity in our society, but a conscious response to the challenge of external modernity. In this way, whether a late-developing and exogenous country can start modernization depends directly on two aspects: first, external challenges, including the intensity of the challenge, the time when the challenge occurred, and the gap between the two civilizations when the challenge occurred; The second is the conditions to meet the challenge, including whether we can clearly understand the true meaning of the challenge, whether we have the conscious consciousness to deal with it by starting our own modernization, and whether we have the realistic ability to do so. ⑹
The book History of Modernization in China, edited by Xu Jilin and Chen Dakai, holds that China, as a late-developing and exogenous country, has entered the modernization process from agricultural civilization to modern industrial civilization since19th century. Hegemonic threats and civilized demonstrations in the western world are indispensable key starting factors. However, we should also see that the change of modernization is not just a simple "shock-response" process. For China, it is not only a sudden break of ancient history in the new century, but also a quiet extension of this history in the past tradition. Only in 19 and the 20th century, when the western demonstration showed a completely different development path, did China respond to the internal challenges of its own history. In this way, the inherent elements of China's history and the demonstration effect of western civilization are superimposed together, which restricts the reaction type and historical trend of China's modernization.
Some scholars call China's modernization type "defensive modernization". Luo Rongqu pointed out that, from a global perspective, China's "new policy of self-improvement" is a special defensive modernization road of "exogenous" modernization, and it is a strong reaction of the eastern countries that suffered from western expansion and aggression in the second modernization wave. At one time, Yan Xiaobo believed that defensive modernization was a modernization movement in which backward countries were forced to strengthen their own defense to maintain their own survival due to the challenges of advanced countries in the process of modernization. This defensive modernization can be seen from two aspects from the mode of modernization: first, actively transplant modernization factors in a peaceful way, such as Japan; Second, from passively resisting the violence and conquest of western countries, we have to actively learn from the west, from economy, politics and culture, so as to integrate into the wave of world modernization from unconscious to conscious. China is this type. ⑻
Third, the relationship between striving for national independence and modernization.
In the modern history of China, the people of China should oppose the aggression of foreign capitalism and strive for national independence. At the same time, China's modern society should conform to the development trend of world history and move towards modernization. The question is whether China's modernization is also the semi-colonization in the evolution of China's semi-colonialism caused by foreign capitalism's invasion of China, and whether there is an order for China people to strive for national independence and modernization. Around these two issues, there are great differences among historians.
Xu Tailai believes that the invasion of foreign capitalism and the impact of world capitalist modernization have aroused the awakening of the Chinese nation and the requirements of capitalist modernization caused by internal factors in China society. This is a positive factor of capitalist modernization within China society stimulated by external factors. This kind of initiative factor merged with the spontaneous factor of capitalist modernization in the bud of China society, and gradually became the mainstream of modern China society. The theme of China's modern history is capitalist modernization and a series of struggles around it. The inherent trend of capitalist modernization in China society and the progressive trend of modernization formed by this trend are to safeguard national independence and resist colonialism and semi-colonialism. China should be modernized, but not colonized; However, foreign powers want to colonize China, not allow China's independent modernization. This is the core content of the contradiction between the Chinese nation and foreign capitalist aggressors. ⑼
Qi believes that the modern history of China, which began with the Opium War, fully proves that there are two opposing "modernization" roads: one is the road taken by patriots, first capitalism, and finally socialism; The other is the path taken by capitulationists, which is capitalist on the surface but semi-colonial in essence. We should distinguish between these two modernizations. ⑽
Wu pointed out that in modern China, industrialization can only be an illusion if imperialist aggression and feudalism are not eliminated. But this does not mean that we should deny any industrialization efforts of people at that time. Because, without some new industries, without the bourgeoisie and proletariat in China, there would be no success in the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal revolution. Of course, it is impossible to realize industrialization without a development strategy based on our own land and adapted to our national conditions. ⑾
Liu Danian believes that national independence and modernization are two things that cannot be replaced by each other. National independence cannot replace modernization, nor can modernization replace national independence. They are closely linked, not isolated. Without national independence, modernization cannot be realized; Without modernization, politics, economy and culture will always fall behind, and true national independence cannot be realized. The people of China persistently pursue national independence, and the ultimate goal is still the modernization of the country. However, national independence and modernization are two different issues after all, each with its own specific content. National independence is to change the oppressed status of the nation, overthrow the semi-colonial and semi-feudal ruling order and fundamentally solve the problem of production relations. Modernization is to change the backward position of China's economy and culture, develop social productive forces with modern industrial productive forces as the mainstay, and fundamentally solve the problem of productive forces. The contents of the two problems are different, so the solutions are different. People can't accomplish two tasks at the same time, or do their best in World War I. The only solution is to take the revolutionary road, overthrow the semi-colonial and semi-feudal ruling order, gain national independence and open a new world for China's modernization. ⑿
Gong Shuduo pointed out that China's modern social transformation, modernization and prosperity cannot be divorced from the social reality of modern China, but must be closely linked with the reality of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, imperialism and feudal rule, and modernization cannot be opposed to the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal struggle, let alone denied. Imperialism reduced China to a semi-colony and China to a semi-feudal state. Historical facts show that the imperialist invasion neither made China enter the capitalist society nor made China realize the capitalist modernization. It is not in line with the historical reality that western powers are in favor of and help China realize modernization instead of opposing imperialism. Without opposing imperialism and changing the semi-colonial and semi-feudal social status and the oppression and plunder of imperialism in China, it is impossible to realize the modernization of China. ⒀
Huang pointed out that in the whole modern society, the Chinese nation is faced with two major historical tasks, one is to strive for national independence and people's liberation, and the other is to achieve national prosperity and people's prosperity. The former task is to clear the obstacles and create the necessary premise for the latter task. China's modernization cannot be ignored or divorced from these two historical tasks. But the historical process of China's modernization is constantly advancing around the realization of these two historical tasks. In the "late-developing and exogenous" modern countries, the start of modernization will be more influenced by external factors, including the objective stimulation of capitalist imperialist aggression. But at the same time, the latter will inevitably bring profound disasters to these nations and countries, making national liberation and independence an indispensable part of their modernization practice and the primary premise of their economic industrialization and political democratization. ⒁
As far as striving for national independence and modernization is concerned, the former is to oppose the aggression of foreign capitalism against China, and the latter is to find the way for China to transform from a traditional society to a modern society; The former is faced with western powers trying to turn China into their semi-colony and colony, while the latter is faced with how to turn a poor and backward China into a prosperous and progressive China through the process of modernization. Therefore, the historical situation in modern China requires the people of China not only to complete the process of striving for national independence to prevent semi-colonization, but also to implement the modernization plan in China to adapt to the development trend of world history. The struggle for national independence and modernization are complementary. Modern productive forces and economic foundation will only contribute to national independence, that is to say, it is inconceivable that modern western powers can be defeated by traditional swords, guns, bows and arrows, and that bourgeois reformers and revolutionaries will enter the political arena without the emergence and development of capitalist economy. Of course, modern China became a semi-colonial country because of imperialist aggression, and the people of China must oppose foreign aggression and strive for national independence. At the same time, imperialism is still attacking and persecuting capitalism in China, and China must try its best to develop capitalism. In this way, China's modernization process also contains elements of striving for national independence. The development trend of modern China should be an independent and prosperous China, not an independent but not prosperous China. In other words, it is impossible to realize modernization without national independence, but it cannot be said that China can't have modernization before it completes the important task of national independence. Here, the struggle for national independence and modernization should be closely related, not mutually antagonistic. Similarly, when expounding the historical process of modernization, we cannot ignore the struggle for national independence.