1 1 century is an important turning point in the rise and maturity of feudal society in western Europe. Many social contradictions are prominent, and various ethnic or political forces compete to interact on stage. Although the Viking movement that once flooded most coastal areas of Europe has ebbed, the descendants of these Vikings are still enthusiastic and energetic after moving to Normandy, France. At this moment, they finally made another impulse, crossed the strait to the north, entered England, and starred in the famous magnificent live drama Norman Conquest. At the same time, they went south to Italy, merged and occupied step by step through military and diplomatic means, launched another protracted conquest movement, and created a brilliant and powerful kingdom of Sicily.
In terms of time sequence and content nature, Norman activities in South Italy can be roughly divided into three stages: first, in the first half of the century,1/kloc-0 entered South Italy and established a foothold; Second, from the second half of the 1 1 century to the beginning of the 12 century, it annexed the territory of southern Italy, invaded Sicily and competed for the Mediterranean; Third, the Norman Sicily Kingdom was founded in the12nd century, and the conquest movement reached its peak.
Located on the northwest coast of France, the Principality of Normandy was the first stable Nordic settlement established in the western European continent in the 10 century. After more than a century, Normandy not only absorbed many new immigrants from the same family, but also quickly entered the feudal process under the influence of the local economic and cultural atmosphere in France.
With the rapid growth of population in a relatively peaceful environment, a corner of this territory is getting narrower and narrower, and people are constantly moving out to make a living. Among these immigrants, there are many bankrupt and poor people. In order to escape the legal constraints of the Duke of Normandy, there are also "landless children who are excluded by more and more brothers". In Normandy, there was a tradition of inheritance, and all sons were divided equally. As a result, all the sons didn't get much land or even nothing. At that time, the number of immigrants from Normandy was not accurately recorded, but it was estimated that there were many. It is generally believed that 1 1 century is an important period for Western Europe to recover and develop from the destruction in the early Middle Ages, with considerable economic and population growth. Henry. Pires even called the high birth rate "1 1 one of the characteristics of the century". "In this period, the phenomenon of family prosperity seems to be as common among the nobles as among the peasants. There are young boys everywhere. They feel that their hometown is overcrowded and they are eager to try their luck in the distance. " Obviously, this has released a restless force from the local society.
At first, Spain at war with MSL attracted people like Roger? Norman knights like De Toni went, but the result was not lasting. It was the subsequent adventure in Italy that brought success and hope to the Normans. This is not only because Italy is located in the transportation hub of the Mediterranean and has always been one of the only ways for Christians to make a pilgrimage to the Near East, but also because it has many religious shrines and is quite attractive. More importantly, Italy has a mild climate, rich people and rich cultural relics, which have always been coveted by all kinds of foreigners and become a battleground for great powers. At that time, the political situation in southern Italy was turbulent, and various forces collided with each other, causing chaos. By virtue of the territory of the papal state, the Holy See has reached out and intervened in secular affairs everywhere. Since the self-examination of Stigny, the Byzantine Empire has occupied some territories here, such as Apulia and Calabria. , was stationed as the governor, under the supervision of the army. Arab emirs, backed by Agra and Fatima dynasties in North Africa, still occupy most of the rich Sicily. In addition, the ambitious German emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and the princes and nobles of Lombardy also stepped in. They attacked each other and wars frequently ended. This chaotic situation actually disintegrated any foreign defense capability of Italy, and gave an opportunity to intermediaries of external forces.
Normans first entered southern Italy as pilgrims, and their tourism activities included visiting the holy land of the archangel St. Michael on Mount gargano in Apulia. It is said that in 10 16, a group of 40 Normans helped repel an Arab fleet that attacked Salenitana on its way back from the Holy Land. Gaimar IV, the Lombardy maharaja of Salenitana, took them in, helped them for their own use, and promised to pay their salaries. He also asked to send some Norman knights to serve his court. From then on, the Normans began to contact Italy. ①
Another report mentioned that a Norman team of about 200 people, led by its leader De Rancho, was persuaded by a Bari citizen named Meles to join its movement against Byzantine rule in gargano Mountain in southern Italy. Normans landed in Naples and won the first battle. They were immediately defeated by Byzantine troops with superior forces and weapons in the Battle of Kani (10 18). 10 19, Meles was forced to go to Germany to seek the help of the holy Roman emperor Henry II, and soon died in the court of the German emperor. The Norman who followed Meles had to live in the deep mountains and valleys of Nanyi because they had no legal residence, or robbed houses or made a living as mercenaries for others.
Norman mercenary team has gradually become a special force that cannot be ignored in South Italy. On the surface, they are snobbish, controlled by others and aggrieved by their employers, but in fact they have considerable room for manoeuvre and freedom. Excellent military quality and high morale often help them defeat the enemy. However, various primitive forces in southern Italy, from Kapuya and benevento to the princes of Salenitana and Naples, often compete with each other to invite and use Norman mercenaries for their own interests, so that the value of this political de-coding has soared and become more and more important. Norman knew this well, they were willing to make ends meet, tried their best to raise their political asking price and seek benefits for themselves as much as possible. The balance of power in southern Italy is also shaking.
From 102 1 to 1022, the normans once went on an expedition to Italy with the holy Roman emperor Henry II, but they didn't gain much. Like their ancestors in France, they were soon not satisfied with just paying money and trophies in return for serving and fighting, but hoped to obtain permanent residency and establish a new Normandy. Soon after, Sergius, the Duke of Naples, was expelled because of a political struggle, and with the help of the Normans, he returned a piece of land at 1029 to show his gratitude. The Normans built the city of Belsa here. This town lies between Naples and Kapuya. At first, it was only used as a fortress to defend against the hostile Duke Pandulf IV of Kapuya, but it eventually became the first stable settlement established by the Normans on southern Italian land. This territory headed by Count Renouf was once regarded as the fief of Conrad II in law, and maintained a nominal vassal relationship with the Holy Roman Empire.
Since then, Aversa has attracted groups of Norman influx from France like a magnet. "The poor are driven by the desire to get rid of the plight of life, and the rich are inspired by hope ... Aversa's unconstrained living standards provide shelter and encouragement for fugitives in those places, and for every fugitive who tries to escape unfair or fair punishment from superiors." In a few days, these immigrants quickly integrated into the local society in terms of lifestyle and even cultural concepts.
Among the Normans who managed Nanyi, the most famous and influential one was Autheville's brother: tancred, a knight of Cotentin in Normandy, had 65,438+02 sons, three of whom, namely, the eldest sons William, Drogo and Onfrey, led the head of this department to Nanyi in 65,438+0036. At first, they worked for Guaimaro IV, Duke of Salenitana, and helped him expand his territory. Their power gradually rose.
Since Sicily was conquered by Arabs in the second half of the 9th century, the Byzantine Empire has been looking forward to recovering lost territory on the island one day. 1038, Marnix, governor of Byzantine province in southern Italy, organized an expedition to Sicily again. The Normans were summoned by Marnix and surrendered to him. In the battle, they have repeatedly shown extraordinary courage and military qualities that can be used for fighting. Their vanguard troops first landed in Sicily and seized the important town of Messina in one fell swoop. 1040 During the Battle of Siracusa, William, the eldest brother of the Autheville family, stabbed the emir of the city to death under his horse. Byzantium once regained control of most parts of Sicily, even the city of 13, with the aid of the Normans. The argument over the distribution of spoils led the Normans to leave angrily.
After returning to Italy, the Autheville brothers formed an alliance with the Normans in Aversa, harassing all parts of the country in retaliation for the Byzantine treachery. In the Battle of Kani in 1042, they defeated the Byzantine army and divided up the land they plundered. Then they elected their leader William as the Earl of Apulia, and still regarded Guaimaro IV, Duke of Salenitana, as the patriarch and melfi as the ruling center. Renouf in Avisa is divided into Siboto and gargano Mountain.
The number of Norman troops active in southern Italy in the early days was limited. Gibbon said that when they went into battle, there were no more than 700 cavalry and no more than 500 infantry, but they were exaggerated to 60 thousand. However, its activity energy is quite amazing. They frequently attack from two strongholds, Aversa and melfi, which have been controlled, and expand the situation.
The Autheville family ruled the melfi regime, almost like a "self-formed aristocrat and country" in organizational structure. Its highest ruling class consists of 12 earl elected by the people, and their age, background and achievements are the basis of people's choice. They each have a specific territory, and the tributes they pay are also allocated to them respectively. They also built castles in the center of their own territory as the lords of the vassals. 65,438+02 Ors has a separate house in melfi, where * * * jointly forms two military legislatures (the Senate) similar to the aristocratic meeting, and * * * manages state affairs. The chief aristocrat, chief executive officer and general of this legislature is William, who holds the title of Earl of Apulia.
1046 After William's death, his second brother, Drogo, succeeded him as Earl of Apulia. Like his compatriots in Arbiza, he also accepted the knighthood of the Holy Roman Empire and put on a protective coat for himself. From then on, the Normans got deeper and deeper in the political struggle between southern Italy and Italy, full of greed and conspiracy. "They don't love or trust people; Neither trust nor love. The contempt for princes is mixed with fear, and the fear of locals is mixed with hatred and resentment. " Byzantines tried in vain to persuade the Normans to give up the land they occupied in southern Italy, and induced them to act as royal mercenaries to fight Persia with money. 105 1 year, pro-Byzantine forces assassinated Drogo, and his third brother, Onfrei, succeeded him as Earl of Apulia.
Normans, uncharacteristically, fought and plundered everywhere in southern Italy, and their growing influence increasingly aroused anxiety and vigilance from all sides. Pope Leo IX planned a countermeasure, trying to unite German emperor Henry III and Byzantine emperor Dante Of nine to drive the Normans out of South Italy, but failed. Leo IX had to lead an improvised army to meet the enemy alone.
1053 On June 8th, the Pope defeated Civita Ty and became a prisoner of Norman. Unexpectedly, a very dramatic scene happened: Norman victors suddenly knelt down in front of the prisoners, begged the Pope's blessing, and respectfully released him, "agreeing to take Apulia as the territory of the Holy See". Then Humphrey sent the Pope back to Rome. Pope accepted Norman reconciliation, turned to make friends, turned enemies into friends, and recognized Norman conquest and its achievements in the name of God's agent.
On the basis of mutual recognition, a special relationship close to alliance has been formed. This is obviously a matter of interest. Compared with the relationship between the Frankish royal family and the Vatican in the early Middle Ages, it is not without the same effect. Although the Normans are devout Christians and have strong religious enthusiasm, they know more deeply that it is extremely necessary to rely on the moral and political support of the Pope in order to gain a foothold in Italy, show their lofty aspirations and win the favor and recognition of the church. On the other hand, the Pope also attaches great importance to the powerful role of secular forces, and wants to use Norman's sword to cut off his old enemies in order to seek hegemony.
Since the 8th century, Byzantium has placed a large area of southern Italy under the jurisdiction of its Orthodox Patriarch. In order to expand its power and seek the supreme sovereignty of the whole Christian world, the Catholic Church has often made enemies with Byzantium on the issue of parish jurisdiction. Norman intervention in South Italy and aggressive occupation of Byzantine jurisdiction just disturbed the established political order, objectively cleared the way for the Pope to crowd out opponents and seize the two autonomous territories of South Italy, which undoubtedly became a catalyst to accelerate the official break between the Pope and the patriarch of Constantinople 1054.
Normans emerged from pilgrims and mercenaries in those years to1/kloc-0 in the middle of the century, occupied an area and won the favor of the Pope. However, in just 30 or 40 years, the Normans have basically laid their political foundation in South Italy.
(1) In addition, it is said that the Normans first arrived in South Italy in about 10 15 years. See A Brief History of the Italian Riots edited by Hector Hurd Depp Willi. Translated by Luo Niansheng Zhu. Beijing: Commercial Press, 1975, Volume I, page 77.
② It also means 1035 or so. Refer to Concise Encyclopedia, edited by editorial department: Concise Encyclopedia of Britain, Beijing? Shanghai: China Encyclopedia Publishing House, 1985, Volume 8. "Weng fry. Articles.
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1 1 The second half of the century to the beginning of 12 century was an important period for the Normans to expand throughout southern Italy and its surrounding areas. At the same time, Norman leader Robert? Giscard and his brother Roger I played a very important historical role.
Robert? Giscard is the sixth son of Tancrede in Autheville. He is not only a brave and handsome knight, but also a political veteran who is good at deception and deception. "Guiscade" is its nickname, which means "cunning".
But Robert. Giscard's early career was not smooth sailing. He left Normandy for Italy around 1047. At first, there were only five knights and 30 infantry. In the competition of power and wealth redistribution in South Italy, as a latecomer, he was envied and rejected by his brother. He was once down and out in the countryside, living without a fixed place, stealing cattle, robbing people and extorting money for a living. It was not until 1053 participated in the battle between Chivita and Thailand, which defeated the Pope, that his extraordinary leadership ability was revealed. 1057, my brother Weng Frye died, and Robert exiled his second son, who was elected as the Earl and General of Apulia.
1059 reached a political and religious agreement with Pope Nicholas II in melfi. In the name of waging a war against pagans, he put forward a plan to expedition Sicily and return it to the sphere of Christian influence. Nicholas II officially awarded Robert the title of "Duke of Apulia and Calabria" and promised Sicily in advance. This marks the official alliance between the Holy See and the Normans, and the rule of the Normans in South Italy is officially legalized, which also means the establishment of the highest suzerainty of the Holy See in South Italy.
1060, the Normans captured Lezzo and completed the occupation of all Calabria in the toe of the Italian peninsula, thus gaining the best springboard for attacking Sicily. The following year, the Normans crossed the sea to capture Messina, which opened the prologue of the protracted Sicilian conquest. They first took advantage of the discord between the Arab Emir on the island and Ibn, the Emir of Palermo. Art-Simner alliance kept it neutral and won the opportunity to seize Messina, the first invasion stronghold. Militarily, this war is an example of amphibious landing operations. Normans were good at riding horses and fighting on land. In order to develop their combat skills quickly after landing, they even used special ships to carry war horses when crossing the strait.
Norman conquered Sicily by Robert? Roger I, Giscard's brother, is the youngest of the twelve brothers in the Autheville family. He came to Italy on 1057 and immediately took part in the battle to capture Calabria. 1064, the Normans tried to seize the city by taking advantage of the new funeral of the Emir of Palermo, but failed. 1068, Roger I defeated the troops sent by Gigi Lai dynasty to reinforce Sicilian Arabs in North Africa and occupied the northern and eastern parts of the island. 1072 After the fall of Palermo, Roger I was called Count of Sicily. Since then, he has worked in trapani (1077), taormina (1079), Siracusa (1085), Enna (1087), Boutra (1088) and agrigento. 109 1 year, the normans captured noto and finally conquered the whole Sicily.
Interestingly, for Robert? Why did it take 30 years for the genius Card and Roger I to conquer the small island of Sicily with the command, fighting spirit and military skills of the Norman army?
First of all, the Normans lacked troops. The Autheville family itself does not have a huge standing army at its disposal, but mainly relies on unofficial armed volunteers, lacking stability. It is said that there are only a hundred knights serving under Roger I, and some scholars think that there are hundreds of heavily armored cavalry of Roger, even with auxiliary personnel, it is quite limited. According to Gibbon, Roger I landed in Sicily for the first time with only 60 soldiers. When fighting in the Seramio Plain, he only had 136 cavalry. When trani Castle was besieged, there were a little more people, only 300 people. Regardless of whether the above is flattering or not, it is generally credible that its army is small in scale and many battles are often outnumbered. Therefore, in a short time, especially in the case of unfavorable strength in the early stage, it is probably true that it is difficult for the Normans to organize a sustained large-scale offensive.
Secondly, from time to time, Robert was restrained by various factions within the Norman people, including the challenge of the aristocratic meeting to his authority and the obstruction of the action plan. The revenge plot of Humphrey's son and Robert's ruthless suppression and disposal inevitably consumed and dispersed Norman energy and strength.
In addition, the Normans had to deal with other enemies on the mainland. Fighting against the remnants of Byzantium and Lombardy, involved in various disputes between the Pope and the German emperor, Robert's expedition to the Balkans and so on.
Due to the constraints of many factors, the already insufficient troops are even more stretched. Therefore, the conquest of Sicily, in the words of Rensiman, became a "slow-heating cause" for the Normans. Nevertheless, it finally ended the Arab rule in Sicily for 200 years. If the Normans used to be mercenaries for Byzantium in Sicily, they were really helping themselves conquer the world at the moment.
At the same time, the Norman expansion in southern Italy is also gradually advancing. 1068 occupied Otranto on the east coast. 107 1 year, Bali, the last stronghold of the Byzantine Empire in the Italian peninsula, was further removed, and the Greek forces were completely excluded. 1076 At the end of the year, the Duke of Lombardy Gisul II was driven away and Salenitana was seized. See you later, Robert? Guiscade finally captured another Norman territory, Aversa ruled by the Renouf family, and merged the whole southern Italy under the banner of the Autheville family he represented.
What is worth mentioning is the relationship between Robert and his younger brother Roger I, during which of course most of them worked together, but there were also disputes based on their own interests. They had a big fight because of the uneven distribution of spoils in Calabria, and finally Robert was captured and Kunming and China reached a settlement. Later, the specific division of territory was mainly based on the traditional principle that "whoever conquers belongs to him." Except for a few places, Sicily was basically monopolized by Roger I, while Robert was difficult to get involved and mainly focused on mainland affairs. The future power structure of the two branches of the Autheville family was thus established.
Robert's contacts with various forces in southern Italy, including the Vatican, which urgently needs to rely on its spiritual authority, are based on safeguarding and expanding its own interests and are highly utilitarian. The two sides not only depend on each other and use each other, but also collide and rub against each other, or are related to the policies, styles and even personality differences of successive popes. On the whole, Robert? The relationship between Normans and the Vatican in Giscard's era can be described as bittersweet.
Pope Gregory VII ascended the throne in 1073. He advocated the reform of the church and took the expansion of religious rights as his own responsibility. He was famous for his fierce political and religious struggle with German emperor Henry IV. At first, he was dissatisfied with the Norman harassment of the church territory in southern Italy. He was punished by expelling the church several times, but later, in order to concentrate on dealing with the German emperor Henry IV and his rival Pope Clementine III, he was uncharacteristically. 1080 in June, he passed the Plenot treaty, and Robert? Giscard made peace. The following year, Robert launched a war against Byzantium, and Gregory VII catered to his public needs and announced the absolute punishment for the Byzantine emperor. Robert reciprocated, and when he boarded the ship for the Balkans, he did not forget to arrange personnel to "help Gregory deal with Henry IV when necessary". 1084, Henry IV entered Rome, and Pope Gregory VII was besieged in Santander Castle. At the appeal of the Pope, Robert himself rushed back to Rome from the Balkans to rescue the driver. After fierce fighting, he drove away the troops of the Kaiser and rescued Gregory VII. The Norman leisurely burning, killing and looting in Rome also made the Pope unpopular and difficult to stay. Gregory finally had to follow the Normans south and die in a different place.
Robert? Relying on the relationship with the Holy See, Guiscade further strengthened the Norman's position in Italian political life, and thus fell deeper into the quagmire of competition with the holy Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire, waiting for an opportunity to expand from the south to the surrounding areas of the Mediterranean, thus causing no small disturbance to the international relations in this region. 1085, Robert? Guiskad died on the way to the Balkans again. Bo Himonde, the son who once helped him command the army, got a fief in Bari, while the power of the Duke of Apulia and Calabria was lost to his weak half brother Roger? Bursa inherited it. The crusade movement in western Europe began to flourish. 1096, Bo Himonde was eager to go to the East to win greater glory, power and wealth, and immediately responded with full armed forces and embarked on a long journey. 1099, he finally seized a territory in the Near East with great military exploits and became the head of the Principality of Antioch.
When Bo Himonde was busy fighting overseas, his uncle Roger I boldly attacked Sicily, consolidating and expanding his power. 1098, he was awarded the title of Special Envoy of the Holy See by the Pope, so he could command all churches in Sicily as the representative of the Pope. By the time of his death in111,Roger I left a considerable political legacy to his heirs in Sicily.
After entering the 12 century, Norman's career in the Mediterranean world was not carried forward in Apulia and Calabria, which were under the control of Bo Himonde's brother and nephew, let alone in Antioch, which he directly controlled, but in Sicily, especially during the reign of Roger II, the son of Roger I, with the establishment of a prosperous and powerful Sicilian kingdom.
1 105, Roger II succeeded to the count of Sicily at the age of ten, and his mother Adelaide was the regent. 1 1 12 Roger II was seventeen years old, and he personally asked about politics. Compared with his martial arts predecessors, he seems to be more patient and pay more attention to achieving his goals by political means. Roger II used his cousin and Robert? William, the grandson of Guiscade, died childless, so he merged Apulia and Calabria in the southern Italian peninsula, and forced Pope Honoriu II at that time to approve this fait accompli and make him a duke. In this way, Roger II unified the three Norman territories of Sicily, Apulia and Calabria in southern Italy for the first time, and formally established the Norman Dynasty in Sicily in11 130-194).
Roger II chose to become king at this time. One is that he has actually controlled enough territory and his wings are growing. Secondly, it also coincided with the internal disputes available to the Vatican at that time, which could reduce political resistance. 1 139, Roger II invaded southern Italy, occupied Naples, and circled in Galluccio, defeating the papal army in one fell swoop, forcing captured Pope Innocent II to recognize his Sicilian throne. This is a great victory for Roger II for the Vatican. Under the rule of Roger II, the kingdom of Sicily, with strict and effective administration, prosperous economy and culture and active diplomacy, was an important role in the political arena of the Mediterranean world at that time.
After Roger II died in 1 154, his descendants William I and William II successively practiced tussah. They have different styles, either tough or tolerant, but they have made great achievements. From Roger II, where the kingdom was founded, to the rule of William I and the second generation of William, the Normans reached their peak after conquering southern Italy and founding the country, which was called "the golden age in Sicily's history". However, the aftermath after the climax did not last long. Sicily's superior position and endless wealth aroused the greed of the great powers. A dazzling royal marriage and inheritance diplomacy quickly changed the symbol of the Norman kingdom in southern Italy and changed the dynasty. 1 186, Frederick the Red Beard, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, successfully married his eldest son, the future German emperor Henry VI, and Princess constance, the legal heir to the throne of Norman Sicily and the widow of Roger II. When William II died in 1 189, Henry VI and constance immediately claimed the throne of Sicily. It was only because the people of China hated the German monarch's power and opposed it that the scepter of the kingdom was temporarily handed over to William I's nephew, Count Tancrede of Lecce. However, Tancrede's rule was unstable and full of contradictions. After his death in 1 194, Henry VI marched south, easily captured Palermo and put the crown of Sicily on his head.
The once famous Norman dynasty in Sicily finally came to an end, and the kingdom changed its course and put on a banner marked with the emblem of Hohenstaufen dynasty in Germany, thus turning a new page in Sicily's history.
From the first time the Normans came to South Italy, the brilliant legacy won by 100 years of painstaking efforts was unexpectedly abandoned in an old-fashioned political game of a typical European royal feudal marriage. Or accidental, but it seems to imply some inevitability.
The significance of Norman Sicily is not only the victim of royal marriage politics and the fleeting bubble in the long river of dynasty rise and fall, but also that this Norman country once had its own modern people, which promoted the economic and cultural exchanges between the East and the West at that time and wrote an indelible chapter in the Mediterranean history. Only in this way can she show her unique research value.